Background
The Paris Agreement was reached by world leaders at the UN Climate Change Conference (COP21) in Paris on 12 December 2015. It is a legally binding international treaty and it entered into force on 4 November 2016. It has 195 Parties in all, made up of 194 States and the European Union. Its long-term goals are to hold the global temperature increase to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit it to 1.5°C, and to provide financing to developing countries to mitigate climate change and adapt to its impacts. The Agreement works on a cycle of increasingly ambitious climate action: every five years each country is expected to submit an updated national climate action plan, known as a Nationally Determined Contribution, or NDC. In its NDC a country communicates the actions it will take to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to build resilience to adapt to rising temperatures. The first global stocktake of efforts under the Agreement concluded at COP28 with a decision on how to accelerate action across mitigation, adaptation and finance. The operational details for putting the Agreement into practice, colloquially called the Paris Rulebook, were agreed at COP24 in Katowice, Poland, and finalized at COP26 in Glasgow, Scotland.
Adopted at:
UN Climate Change Conference (COP21) in Paris on 12 December 2015
Entered into force:
4 November 2016
Parties:
195 Parties: 194 States and the European Union
Temperature goal:
well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, pursuing efforts to limit it to 1.5°C
Review cycle:
an updated Nationally Determined Contribution every five years
Paris Rulebook:
agreed at COP24 in Katowice, Poland; finalized at COP26 in Glasgow, Scotland
Why it matters for exams: The five-year review cycle, the two temperature figures and the distinction between the conference that adopted the Agreement and the date it entered into force are asked in one form or another in almost every general studies paper that covers climate policy.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSC
Background
India is one of the Contracting Parties to the Ramsar Convention, signed in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971. India signed it on 1st Feb 1982. Kanjirankulam Bird Sanctuary is a Protected area near Mudukulathur, Ramanathapuram District, Tamil Nadu, declared in 1989. It is listed among the wetlands designated as Ramsar sites in the release. It is a nesting site for migratory heron species, and the site qualifies as an IBA as the threatened Spot-billed Pelican breeds there.
Convention signed at:
Ramsar, Iran
India signed on:
1st Feb 1982
Kanjirankulam declared:
1989
Why it matters for exams: Treaty details and named wetlands are commonly asked in environment sections.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSC
Background
According to the PIB backgrounder on Biosphere Reserves released on 3 November 2025, India has 18 notified Biosphere Reserves covering approximately 91,425 sq. km, of which 13 are recognized by UNESCO's World Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR). Biosphere Reserves are recognised under UNESCO's Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme. In September 2025, the Cold Desert Biosphere Reserve in Himachal Pradesh was included in the network. The Centrally Sponsored Scheme for Biosphere Reserves helps reduce biotic pressure on core biodiversity zones, with special emphasis on buffer and transition zones.
Notified Biosphere Reserves (per PIB backgrounder):
18
Area covered:
91,425 sq. km
Recognised by UNESCO's WNBR (per PIB backgrounder):
13
Why it matters for exams: Counts of notified versus UNESCO-recognised reserves (as given in the PIB backgrounder) and the MAB Programme are asked in environment papers.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSC
Background
State animal: Indian elephant (Elephas maximus indicus).
State bird: Great hornbill (Buceros bicornis).
State fish: Green chromide (Etroplus suratensis).
State flower: Kanikonna (Cassia fistula).
State tree: Coconut tree (Cocos nucifera); state fruit: Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus).
State butterfly: Malabar banded peacock (Papilio buddha); state dance form: Kathakali.
The name "Keralam" reflects the abundance of coconuts, with 'Kera' meaning coconut and 'alam' signifying land.
State bird:
Great hornbill
State fish:
Green chromide
State flower:
Kanikonna
State butterfly:
Malabar banded peacock
State dance form:
Kathakali
Why it matters for exams: State symbols are a reliable one-mark topic in Kerala PSC general knowledge papers.
Kerala PSC
Background
Kerala has more than 200 wetland areas, covering about one-fifth of the State's land area.
Vembanad-Kole, Ashtamudi and Sasthamcotta lakes are designated as Ramsar sites.
Wetland types include marshes, polders (paddy fields) bordering backwaters, lakes and the Myristica Swamps of the Western Ghats.
The State Wetland Authority Kerala (SWAK), established under the Department of Environment, oversees wetland management.
The Kerala State Council for Science, Technology and Environment (KSCSTE) has developed management plans for Vembanad, Sasthamcotta and Ashtamudi.
The main threats are pollution, eutrophication, encroachment, reclamation, mining and biodiversity loss.
Ramsar-designated lakes:
Vembanad-Kole, Ashtamudi, Sasthamcotta
Wetland areas:
More than 200
Share of State land area:
About one-fifth
Oversight body:
SWAK
Why it matters for exams: Ramsar sites and the wetland authority are standard environment topics for Kerala PSC and UPSC.
Kerala PSCUPSC
Background
Kerala has 44 perennial rivers, of which three flow eastward and 41 drain into the Lakshadweep Sea.
The four medium rivers are Chaliyar, Bharathapuzha, Periyar and Pamba.
Their lengths are 169 km, 209 km, 244 km and 176 km respectively.
Their total drainage area is only 8250 km2.
The remaining rivers range from 16 km to 130 km in length, with an average of 62 km.
About 30 reservoirs, mostly in the highlands, modulate the river flow.
The rivers have steep gradients and swift flow, lack delta formation and mainly follow a dendritic drainage pattern.
Periyar:
244 km
Bharathapuzha:
209 km
Pamba:
176 km
Chaliyar:
169 km
Perennial rivers:
44
Why it matters for exams: River lengths and rankings recur in Kerala PSC and state-level geography questions.
Kerala PSCUPSC
29 September 2026
UN News reported on 28 September 2026 on the State of the World's Forests (SOFO) 2026 report.
It says 489 million hectares of forest were lost to deforestation between 1990 and 2025.
More than 460 million hectares of forests worldwide are degraded.
Restoring more than one billion hectares of degraded land could generate $1.8 trillion per year in benefits.
One-third of the global population relies on forests for food and work.
Forest lost 1990-2025:
489 million hectares
Degraded forests:
over 460 million hectares
Restoration benefit:
$1.8 trillion per year
Why it matters for exams: Reports and indices with headline figures are staple exam material.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSC
29 September 2026
Gujarat Chief Minister Bhupendra Patel and Union Minister for Ports, Shipping and Waterways Sarbananda Sonowal laid the foundation stone on 26 September 2026 for a 150 Tonnes Per Day capacity E-Methanol plant at Deendayal Port Authority in Kutch district. Mr Sonowal said the plant will create numerous employment opportunities across the country. He noted Gujarat's historic role in India's maritime sector spanning over five thousand years and said Kandla ranks as the seventh-largest port globally. Mr Patel said Deendayal Port is a crucial maritime gateway for the nation and is rapidly being developed into a Green Hydrogen hub.
Plant capacity:
150 Tonnes Per Day
Location:
Deendayal Port Authority, Kutch district
Kandla's global rank (as stated):
Seventh-largest port
Why it matters for exams: Green-fuel projects at major ports and the ministers and locations involved are typical economy and infrastructure current-affairs questions.
UPSCSSC
Background
The official DIPR profile places Peren district at an altitude of 1,445 meters above sea level and lists 79 recognised villages.
The main crops are paddy, ginger, maize and King Chilli.
Seven significant rivers flow through it: Mbeiki, Tepuiki, Tesangki, Mungleuki, Nguiki, Ntangki and Tehaiki.
The District Commissioner's office is at Peren, the Additional DC office at Tening and the SDO office at Jalukie.
Attractions include Mt. Pauna, Ntangki National Park and Benreu Tourist Village.
Altitude:
1,445 meters above sea level
Recognised villages:
79
Significant rivers:
Seven
National park:
Ntangki National Park
Why it matters for exams: Tests Nagaland district geography, protected areas and administrative centres.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSC
29 September 2026
The Kerala Cabinet on 23 September 2026 decided to give ₹8 lakh each to the families of those who lost their lives in the rain-related disasters in Malappuram, Idukki and Kottayam districts. Chief Minister V. D. Satheesan said nine deaths were covered, including a flash flood in the Kottapuzha river near Nilambur and landslides and other rain-related incidents in Idukki and Kottayam. The same meeting decided on a coordinated road safety campaign under the Transport Department, combining awareness with strict action against violations.
Aid per family:
₹8 lakh
Deaths covered:
9
Why it matters for exams: Disaster-relief packages and KSDMA-related decisions are frequent Kerala PSC current-affairs questions.
Kerala PSC
Background
Amur falcons come to roost every year at Doyang lake in Nagaland during their flight from Mongolia to South Africa. The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change records that Amur falcons are the longest travelling raptors in the world and come to Doyang every year in millions. The birds weigh just 150 grams and fly non-stop in five days from Mongolia to arrive in Nagaland. Pangti village in Nagaland has been recognised as the world's Amur Falcon capital, as more than one million birds can be seen there in just 30 minutes. Until recently Naga tribesmen used to hunt thousands of Amur falcons for meat, but after a campaign by wildlife activists they pledged to protect the bird. The Ministry describes the conservation of the Amur falcon as a success story achieved with people's participation, and announced that the Doyang Lake area would be developed as an eco-tourism spot for bird-watchers. Two falcons tagged with satellite tracking chips, named Naga and Pangti, made repeated journeys from Mongolia to South Africa via Nagaland.
Roosting site:
Doyang lake, Nagaland
Weight of the bird:
150 grams
Migration route:
Mongolia to South Africa
Amur Falcon capital:
Pangti village
Why it matters for exams: The Amur falcon's Mongolia-Nagaland-South Africa route, Doyang lake and Pangti village are among the most asked Indian bird-migration facts.
Kerala PSCUPSC
Background
Kiphire district is located in the eastern most part of Nagaland, bordering Myanmar, and is 254 km away from the Capital city Kohima. It is wedged between Saramati, the highest mountain in the state, and the Jingkhu mountains, and is located at an elevation of 896.42 meters above the mean sea level. The district officially recognises three tribes, the Sangtam, Yimchungrü and Sümi, besides several sub-tribes speaking various languages. Its important festivals are Mongmong, observed by the Sangtam during September, Metümnio, observed in the month of August by the Yimchungrü, and Tuluni, observed in July by the Sümi. Fakim Wild Life Sanctuary in the district shelters Blyth’s Tragopan (Tragopan blythii), hornbill and hill peacocks. Apples are grown in abundance in the foothills of Saramati Mountain, and an Apple Festival has become an annual fixture at Thanamir, a frontier village bordering Myanmar.
Distance from Kohima:
254 km
Elevation:
896.42 meters above mean sea level
Highest mountain in the state:
Saramati
Wildlife sanctuary:
Fakim Wild Life Sanctuary
Why it matters for exams: Mount Saramati as Nagaland's highest peak, Fakim Wild Life Sanctuary and the tribe-festival pairings of Mongmong, Metümnio and Tuluni are all standard exam facts.
Kerala PSCUPSC
Background
Tseminyu District is the 13th district of the Indian state of Nagaland. It was created on December 18, 2021, with the district headquarter located in the town of Tseminyu. It is the homeland of the Rengma Nagas, with a population of 63,269 in 2011 and an area of 256 square kilometres. The district headquarter is 50 km from the State capital, and National Highway-2 passes through the district, traversing a length of approximately 50 km. It is situated at an average altitude of 1261 metres above mean sea level, with mostly hilly terrain and a subtropical climate. Tseminyu shares boundaries with Wokha on the North, Zunheboto on the East, Niuland on the West and Kohima on the South. The district has a community biodiversity and wildlife reserve at Sendenyu village, a community initiative for nature conservation since 2001, with a demarcated area of 18 sq. km.
District number:
13th district
Created on:
December 18, 2021
Area:
256 square kilometres
Population (2011):
63,269
Why it matters for exams: Nagaland's newest districts and the tribe-district mapping (Rengma Nagas and Tseminyu) are direct factual questions in Northeast geography.
Kerala PSCUPSC
Background
Phek lies on the south-eastern part of Nagaland, bounded by Myanmar in the east, Zunheboto and Kiphire in the north, Manipur in the south and Kohima in the west. It has an area of 2,026 square kilometer and a population of 163,418, of which male and female were 83,743 and 79,675 respectively in the 2011 census. The district headquarter town of Phek lies at the lowest altitude of the district at 1,524m above sea level, with the village of Pfutsero Town at the highest point of 2,136m above sea level. Three important rivers run through it, namely Tizu, Lanye, and Sedzu, and there are three important lakes called Shilloi, Chida and Dzudu. The district is regarded as among the richest areas of mineral deposits, including limestone, decorative marble stone, coal, brine and salt. Weziho Cement Factory under Meluri Sub-Division is the only cement factory in the State and can produce 150 TPD.
Area:
2,026 square kilometer
Population (2011):
163,418
Highest point:
Pfutsero Town, 2,136m
Rivers:
Tizu, Lanye, and Sedzu
Why it matters for exams: Phek's Myanmar border, the Tizu-Lanye-Sedzu rivers, the Shilloi-Chida-Dzudu lakes and Pfutsero's altitude are recurring Nagaland geography questions.
Kerala PSCUPSC
Background
The Kerala Forest Department says Kerala holds the distinction of having the most diverse mangrove growth in India.
Spanning over 7.55 square kilometers, Kannur district possesses the state's largest mangrove expanse.
The total area of Kerala's mangrove forests is estimated to be less than 50 square kilometers.
All districts in Kerala except Idukki, Pathanamthitta, Palakkad and Wayanad have some mangrove cover.
Locally called "Kandal", these forests are primarily located in the upper regions of estuaries, lagoons, backwaters and creeks.
Common species include Acanthus illicifolius, Avicennia officinalis, Rhizophora apiculata and Sonneratia caseolaris, while Calamus rotang and Syzygium travancoricum face the threat of extinction.
Dense mangrove roots stabilise the coastline, act as barriers against cyclones and tsunamis and filter seawater intrusion.
District with the largest mangrove expanse:
Kannur
Kannur mangrove extent:
over 7.55 square kilometers
Kerala total mangrove area:
less than 50 square kilometers
Districts with no mangrove cover:
Idukki, Pathanamthitta, Palakkad and Wayanad
Why it matters for exams: Which district has the largest mangrove cover, and which districts have none, are standard Kerala PSC geography questions.
Kerala PSCUPSC
Background
Myristica swamps are unique freshwater swamp ecosystems of the Southern Western Ghats, dominated by Myristica species, a genus of primitive evergreen trees.
The Kerala Forest Department states that these swamps cover just 0.004% of Kerala's total land area.
Even so, they harbor 16.3% of the endemic species of the Western Ghats.
Their existence was first documented in the 1960s by botanist and forest officer Krishnamurthy, in areas like Kulathupuzha, Shendurney and Anchal in the Travancore forests.
They were later classified as "wild swamps" in the 1968 Revised Survey Report on Forest Transitions in India by Champion and Seth.
The trees have stilt roots for structural support and pneumatophores, or breathing roots, with air spaces to respire in oxygen-poor waterlogged soil.
Other notable Myristica swamp areas in Kerala include Arippa, Madathara, Palode and Venkolla.
Share of Kerala's land area:
0.004%
Share of Western Ghats endemic species:
16.3%
First documented:
1960s, by Krishnamurthy
Classified as wild swamps:
1968, by Champion and Seth
Why it matters for exams: The 0.004% versus 16.3% contrast and the adaptations of Myristica trees are ready-made UPSC environment and ecology questions.
Kerala PSCUPSC
Background
The Kerala Forest Department lists two Biosphere Reserves in the state: Nilgiri and Agasthyamalai.
Nilgiri, also the first BR of India, extends into Karnataka, while Agasthyamalai stretches into Tamil Nadu.
The extent of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve is given as 1455.40 Sq. Km, and the Kerala part includes Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary, Silent valley National Park and the Nilambur, Mannarkkad, Palakkad and Kozhikode forest areas.
The extent given for Agasthyamalai is 1828 Sq. Km, covering Neyyar, Peppara and Shendurney wildlife sanctuaries along with the Achencoil, Thenmala, Konni, Punalur and Thiruvananthapuram divisions and the Agasthyavanam Biological Park Range.
The Biosphere Reserve concept was introduced by UNESCO under its Man and Biosphere Programme (MAB) during 1971.
A Biosphere Reserve is a voluntary, co-operative conservation area meant to protect biological and cultural diversity while promoting sustainable economic development.
Because they are relatively larger areas, biosphere reserves stand for landscape level conservation, beyond even state or nation borders.
Biosphere reserves in Kerala:
2
Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve extent:
1455.40 Sq. Km
Agasthyamalai extent:
1828 Sq. Km
Concept introduced by:
UNESCO, Man and Biosphere Programme (MAB), 1971
Why it matters for exams: That Nilgiri is India's first biosphere reserve, and the extents of Kerala's two reserves, are recurring Kerala PSC and UPSC facts.
Kerala PSCUPSC
Background
Wayanad, Nilambur, Anamudi and Periyar are the four Elephant Reserves in Kerala, established in 2002.
The Wayanad reserve extends over 1200 sq km and covers Wayanad, Kannur and Kozhikkode districts.
Nilambur extends over 1419 sq km across Malappuram, Kozhikkode and Palakkad.
Anamudi covers 3728 sq km, and Periyar, at 3742 sq km, is the largest of the four.
The state total extent of the four reserves is 10089 sq km.
Elephant Reserves are notified after approval from a steering committee chaired by the MoEFCC, and they often overlap with existing tiger reserves, wildlife sanctuaries and reserved forests.
India has 33 Elephant Reserves encompassing 80,777.778 square kilometers, and 150 elephant corridors have been identified and validated across 15 states.
Elephant Reserves in Kerala:
4
State total extent:
10089 sq km
Largest reserve:
Periyar, 3742 sq km
Elephant Reserves in India:
33
Elephant corridors identified:
150
Why it matters for exams: The names, districts and extents of Kerala's four elephant reserves are standard environment and geography questions.
Kerala PSCUPSC
Background
The Kerala Forest Department lists 18 sanctuaries in the state, covering 2156.21 sq km.
India has an extensive network of 573 wildlife sanctuaries spanning 123,762.56 sq km as of November 2023, which is 3.76% of the country's geographical area.
The earliest in Kerala's list was formed in 1950; the most recent is Karimpuzha Wildlife Sanctuary, formed in 2019 with an area of 227.970 sq km.
The smallest is Mangalavanam Bird Sanctuary at 0.027 sq km, formed in 2004.
Kottiyoor Wildlife Sanctuary (30.380 sq km, 2011), Choolannur Pea Fowl Sanctuary (3.420 sq km, 2007) and Kurinjimala Sanctuary (32.000 sq km, 2006) are among the newer ones.
Sanctuaries are legally protected under the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972.
Each sanctuary is zoned into a core zone with no human interference, a buffer zone with controlled activities and a tourism zone within the buffer.
Sanctuaries in Kerala:
18
Combined area:
2156.21 sq km
Sanctuaries in India:
573
Newest in Kerala:
Karimpuzha Wildlife Sanctuary, 227.970 sq km
Smallest in Kerala:
Mangalavanam Bird Sanctuary, 0.027 sq km
Why it matters for exams: The count, total area and the oldest and newest sanctuaries in Kerala are repeat questions in Kerala PSC and UPSC environment papers.
Kerala PSCUPSC
Background
Tiger conservation in India is coordinated by the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA), which functions under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
The Union Minister for Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Shri Bhupender Yadav, stated that the number of tigers (3682) and tiger reserves (58) has seen a remarkable increase in the last 12 years.
He added that the number of elephant reserves, national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, protected areas, community reserves and wetlands has also increased during the same period.
NTCA organises the Global Tiger Day celebrations; the 2026 event was held in New Delhi with Union MoS Shri Kirti Vardhan Singh also present.
An NTCA Eco-tourism webpage was launched to bring information on all Tiger Reserves onto an integrated platform, with direct links to authentic Tiger Reserve websites for safari and accommodation bookings.
The International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA) was cited for taking big-cat knowledge sharing to the world.
Publications released included the NTCA Outreach Journal STRIPES and the Security Audit Report of 24 Tiger Reserves.
NTCA Awards honour contributions to tiger conservation and protected area management.
Tigers:
3682
Tiger reserves:
58
Nodal authority:
National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA)
Security Audit Report covers:
24 Tiger Reserves
Why it matters for exams: The count of tiger reserves, the tiger population figure and the NTCA's role are perennial Kerala PSC and UPSC environment questions.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSC