Background
The Congress of the United States is the legislative branch and has two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives; the first Article of the Constitution establishes their structure and powers.
The Senate clause as drafted reads: "The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six Years."
State legislatures continued to elect senators until adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment to the Constitution, which provided for popular election of senators, in 1913.
The Constitutional Convention approved two senators per state by unanimous vote, and adopted a six-year, three-class Senate so that one third of the members go out every second year.
A Senator must have attained the "Age of thirty Years" and have been "nine Years a Citizen of the United States", and must be an inhabitant of the State for which he shall be chosen.
"The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no Vote unless they be equally divided"; the Senate also chooses a president pro tempore to preside in the Vice President's absence.
Treaties are made by and with the "Advice and Consent of the Senate", provided "two thirds of the Senators present concur"; the same advice and consent governs the appointment of Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and Judges of the supreme Court.
In the House the number of voting representatives is fixed by law at no more than 435, proportionally representing the population of the 50 states, and each representative is elected to a two-year term; a representative must be at least 25 years old and a United States citizen for at least seven years.
Besides the voting members there are five delegates and a resident commissioner, who hold the same powers except that they may not vote when the House meets as the House of Representatives; the arrangement of a population-based House with an equal-state Senate is called The Great Compromise.
Federal capital:
Washington, DC
Senate composition:
Two Senators from each State, for six Years
Senator qualifications:
Age of thirty Years; nine Years a Citizen of the United States
House voting members:
no more than 435
Representative term and age:
two-year term; at least 25 years old; citizen for at least seven years
Presiding officer of the Senate:
The Vice President of the United States
Treaty consent:
two thirds of the Senators present concur
Non-voting members:
five delegates and a resident commissioner
Why it matters for exams: The two-chamber shape of the United States legislature, the six-year Senate against the two-year House and the Senate's treaty and appointment consent are the standard comparative-polity questions set beside the Indian Parliament.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSC
In plain words
The Great Compromise The Great Compromise — The agreement at the Constitutional Convention to represent citizens by district population in the House and by equal state shares in the Senate.
president pro tempore president pro tempore of the Senate — A senator chosen by the Senate to preside in the absence of the Vice President; the Latin phrase means president for a while.
Background
The United Nations lists the Russian Federation among its Member States, with the date of admission given as 24-10-1945.
The Security Council is composed of 15 Members.
Five of them are permanent members: China, France, the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom and the United States.
The other ten are non-permanent members elected for two-year terms by the General Assembly.
A State which is a Member of the United Nations but not of the Security Council may participate, without a vote, in its discussions when the Council considers that country's interests are affected.
More than 50 United Nations Member States have never been Members of the Security Council.
Date of Admission to the United Nations:
24-10-1945
Size of the Security Council:
15 Members
Permanent members:
China, France, Russian Federation, the United Kingdom, and the United States
Term of the non-permanent members:
two-year terms
Why it matters for exams: The five permanent seats and the two-year term of the elected seats are among the most repeated one-mark questions on international organisations.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSC
In plain words
UNSC United Nations Security Council — It is the 15-member organ of the United Nations with five permanent and ten elected members.
UNGA United Nations General Assembly — It is the plenary organ of the United Nations and it elects the non-permanent members of the Security Council.
Background
Article 75 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation establishes the special legal status of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation and gives it the exclusive right to issue currency.
The same article makes it the bank's main function to protect the ruble and ensure its stability.
The bank's status, goals, functions and powers are defined by Federal Law No. 86-FZ, dated 10 July 2002, on the Central Bank of the Russian Federation (Bank of Russia).
Article 3 of that law sets four goals: to protect the ruble and ensure its stability; to develop and strengthen the banking system of the Russian Federation; to ensure stability of and develop the national payment system; and to develop the financial market and ensure its stability.
The Bank of Russia is a special public legal institution and is not a body of state power, yet its authorised capital and other property are federal property.
It is accountable to the State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation.
Among its listed functions, it is the sole issuer of cash money, it approves the graphic sign of the ruble, it organises the digital ruble platform, and it sets and publishes the official exchange rates of foreign currencies against the ruble.
Its head office stands at 12 Neglinnaya Street, Moscow.
Currency:
ruble
Constitutional basis:
Article 75 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation
Governing statute:
Federal Law No. 86-FZ, dated 10 July 2002
Accountable to:
State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation
Head office:
12 Neglinnaya Street, Moscow, 107016 Russia
Why it matters for exams: A central bank's constitutional basis, its governing statute and the house it answers to are the three facts examiners pair with India's own banking questions.
Kerala PSCUPSCBank
In plain words
State Duma State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation — It is the house of the Russian legislature to which the Bank of Russia is accountable.
Federal Assembly Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation — It is the national legislature of the Russian Federation, and the State Duma is one of its houses.
Background
The High Court of Madhya Pradesh has its principal seat at Jabalpur.
The court traces its descent from the Nagpur High Court, which was established for Central Provinces & Berar by Letters Patent of 1936 issued under Section 108 of the Government of India Act, 1915.
The present state of Madhya Pradesh was constituted under Section 9 of the States Reorganization Act of 1956.
Under that Act the Nagpur High Court was deemed to be the High Court for the new state, so the Nagpur court was not abolished but became the High Court of Madhya Pradesh with its seat at Jabalpur.
Temporary benches at Indore and Gwalior were constituted when the new state came into being.
A Presidential Notification of 1968, issued under Section 51(2) of the States Reorganization Act, established permanent benches of the High Court of Madhya Pradesh at Indore and Gwalior.
Principal seat:
Jabalpur
Permanent benches:
Indore and Gwalior
Predecessor court:
Nagpur High Court
Letters Patent constituting the predecessor court:
1936
Statute constituting the present state:
States Reorganization Act, 1956
Why it matters for exams: Which city holds a High Court's principal seat and which cities hold its benches is a standard state-judiciary question, and Madhya Pradesh is one of the few High Courts with two permanent benches.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSC
In plain words
Letters Patent Letters Patent — A formal written order of the Crown by which a court was constituted and given its jurisdiction.
Bench Bench of a High Court — A place away from a High Court's principal seat where some of its judges sit and hear cases.
Background
The High Court of Karnataka sits at Bengaluru in the Attara Kacheri, on the green, sprawling lawns of Cubbon Park in the heart of the city.
It stands opposite the Vidhana Soudha, which houses the State Legislature and the Secretariat, and the road in between is named 'Ambedkar Veedhi' in honour of Dr. B.R.Ambedkar.
Any study of the judicial institutions in the State has to bear in mind three distinct territorial jurisdictions: the erstwhile Mysore State, the Bombay – Karnataka area and the Hyderabad – Karnataka area.
Added to these are the coastal areas of Karnataka, the Mangaluru region, and Coorg, which were part of erstwhile British India.
On re-organization all these distinct territorial jurisdictions were merged to form Mysore State, which was renamed as Karnataka on 1 November 1973.
Besides the principal seat, the High Court has a bench at Dharwad and a bench at Kalaburagi.
Cases arising from the districts of Bagalkot, Bellary, Belgaum, Dharwad, Gadag, Haveri, Uttara Kannada and Koppal are heard and decided at the Bench at Dharwad.
Cases arising from Bidar, Bijapur, Kalaburagi and Raichur are heard at the Bench at Kalaburagi; the permanent benches became operational at Dharwad on 24-08-2013 and at Kalaburagi on 31-08-2013.
Court building:
Attara Kacheri, Cubbon Park, Bengaluru
Benches besides the principal seat:
Dharwad and Kalaburagi
Permanent Bench at Dharwad operational:
24-08-2013
Permanent Bench at Kalaburagi operational:
31-08-2013
Mysore State renamed Karnataka:
1 November 1973
Why it matters for exams: State-judiciary questions turn on the name of the court building, the number and location of its benches, and the three pre-reorganisation jurisdictions that the State was assembled from.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Attara Kacheri Attara Kacheri — The building on the lawns of Cubbon Park in Bengaluru that houses the High Court of Karnataka.
Vidhana Soudha Vidhana Soudha — The building opposite the High Court that houses the State Legislature and the Secretariat.
8 October 2026
A Division Bench of Justice Anil K. Narendran and Justice Muralee Krishna S. set aside a Single Bench order on co-education at the Muslim Girls' Higher Secondary School, Erattupetta.
The Single Bench had directed the Erattupetta Municipality Secretary to grant approval within 3 days, failing which the school could proceed without it.
The writ appeal was filed by the manager of a nearby boys' school and another appellant.
The Bench sent the school's writ petition back to the Single Bench for fresh consideration, and the appellants and teachers of the nearby boys' school may implead themselves.
The school's petition challenges a government circular that requires local body approval for introducing co-education in single-gender schools.
As 28 boy students from Class 5 to Class 10 had already been admitted, the Bench ordered status quo until the writ petition is decided on merits.
The Division Bench passed the order on 8 October 2026; it was reported on 11 and 12 October 2026.
Bench:
Justice Anil K. Narendran and Justice Muralee Krishna S.
Approval deadline in the set-aside order:
3 days
Boy students already admitted:
28 (Class 5 to Class 10)
Interim direction:
Status quo
Why it matters for exams: Shows how school-level policy (a circular on co-education) is tested in court, a recurring Kerala PSC theme on education governance.
Kerala PSC
In plain words
Status quo Existing position to be maintained — The 28 boy students already admitted stay in the school until the writ petition is decided.
Writ appeal Appeal to a Division Bench against a Single Judge's writ order — The nearby boys' school manager filed it against the Single Bench order.
8 October 2026
A Kerala High Court Division Bench of Justice Sathish Ninan and Justice P. Krishna Kumar upheld the constitutional validity of Section 69 of the Indian Succession Act, 1925.
Section 69 provides that a will is revoked by the maker's marriage, except a will made in exercise of a power of appointment in the circumstances the section specifies; it applies to Christians, Parsis and Jews and not to Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs and Jainas.
The court was hearing a suo motu civil reference and connected petitions, and answered both questions framed in the negative: the limited application does not violate fundamental rights, and Section 69 does not conflict with Section 20 of the Act.
It rejected the challenge under Articles 14 and 15 and found no manifest arbitrariness.
The court noted that the rule was adapted from the English Wills Act, 1837, on the premise that marriage changes a person's duties and priorities.
The Division Bench delivered the judgment on 8 October 2026; it was reported on 9 October and 12 October 2026.
Provision upheld:
Section 69, Indian Succession Act, 1925
Bench:
Justice Sathish Ninan and Justice P. Krishna Kumar
Articles on equality considered:
14 and 15
Source of the rule:
English Wills Act, 1837
Why it matters for exams: Tests personal-law differences, Articles 14 and 15, and the Indian Succession Act, 1925, all with a fresh High Court ruling.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Suo motu reference A matter taken up by the court on its own motion — Here a civil reference was made to examine the validity of Section 69.
Will Legal declaration of how a person's property is to be distributed after death — Under Section 69 a covered will is revoked when its maker marries.
8 October 2026
The Tripura Cabinet decided to establish a Tripura Staff Selection Commission (TSSC) to conduct examinations for recruitment to Group-B, Group-C and Group-D posts under the state government. Minister Sushanta Chowdhury announced the decisions. The Cabinet also approved creation of 700 Graduate Teacher posts for Classes IX and X in the Secondary Education Department, and filling of 361 teacher posts in the Elementary Education Department (75 Graduate Teachers and 286 Under Graduate Teachers). Recruitment of 213 personnel for the Agartala Municipal Corporation was approved. About 9.92 lakh ration card holders will get 1 kg of sugar, 2 kg of flour and 500 g of semolina free for the Durga Puja festivities, distributed through Fair Price Shops during October and November. The sitting allowance of the Scheduled Caste Welfare sub-committee rises from Rs 100 to Rs 200, and the daily allowance for Minority Welfare boarding students from Rs 65 to Rs 100.
New body:
Tripura Staff Selection Commission
Posts covered:
Group-B, C and D
Free ration beneficiaries:
about 9.92 lakh ration card holders
Agartala Municipal Corporation recruitment:
213 personnel
Why it matters for exams: A new state recruitment body and its remit is a likely state-affairs question, as are the Cabinet's free-ration and recruitment decisions.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSC
8 October 2026
The Department of Economic and Statistic, Nagaland, has notified revised requirements for verifying delayed registration of births and deaths beyond one year.
The requirements are to be followed by the District Magistrate, or a Sub-Divisional Magistrate or Executive Magistrate authorised by the District Magistrate, before approving such delayed registration.
An applicant seeking delayed registration of a birth must produce at least two of ten listed documents as proof of birth, place and date.
The ten are a hospital discharge slip, a vaccination card, school records or the HSLC admit card, a government ID card, a driving licence, a passport, a pensioner card, the Electors Photo Identity Card, a PAN card, and certification by a Village Council Chairman or Ward Councillor.
For non-indigenous applicants, the birth certificate of parents and an Inner Line Permit are mandatory in addition to those documents.
For a delayed death registration, the applicant must produce either a medical certificate for cause of death or certification by a Village Council Chairman or Ward Councillor indicating the date of death.
The notification comes into force with immediate effect, and all District Chief Registrars of Births and Deaths and Registrars have been told to ensure strict compliance.
Documents needed for delayed birth registration:
At least 2 of 10 listed documents
Extra for non-indigenous applicants:
Birth Certificate of Parents and Inner Line Permit
Approving authority:
District Magistrate or authorised SDM/Executive Magistrate
Date of notification:
October 08 2026
Why it matters for exams: Birth and death registration is a statutory function with fixed time limits, and Nagaland's Inner Line Permit condition shows how a protected state adapts a national civil registration rule.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
ILP Inner Line Permit — A travel document that an Indian citizen from outside the state needs to enter Nagaland and some other protected areas.
EPIC Electors Photo Identity Card — The voter identity card issued by the Election Commission of India.
HSLC High School Leaving Certificate — The class 10 board examination in Nagaland and several north-eastern states.
8 October 2026
The International Criminal Court made public on 8 October 2026 a decision of Trial Chamber III, dated 28 September 2026, holding that former Philippine president Rodrigo Roa Duterte is fit to stand trial. The opening of the trial is scheduled for 30 November 2026. The Chamber said it was satisfied that the accused is able to exercise his fair trial rights effectively, basing its finding on an independent Panel of Experts and on submissions by the parties and participants. The Expert Panel unanimously found that he has the capacity to understand the charges, the purpose and consequences of the proceedings, the nature of entering a plea and the evidence, and to instruct counsel. The Chamber said it will assess sitting hours case by case depending on the circumstances of the witnesses and the accused, and instructed the Registry that his health be continuously monitored by the Medical Officer of the Court's Detention Centre. The arrest warrant was issued by Pre-Trial Chamber I as secret on 7 March 2025 and made public on 11 March 2025. Duterte was surrendered to the ICC on 12 March 2025 and made his initial appearance on 14 March 2025. The confirmation of charges hearing was held from 23 to 27 February 2026, and on 23 April 2026 Pre-Trial Chamber I unanimously confirmed all charges, comprising three counts of crimes against humanity.
Chamber:
Trial Chamber III
Decision dated:
28 September 2026, made public 8 October 2026
Trial opens:
30 November 2026
Charges confirmed:
three counts of crimes against humanity
Why it matters for exams: A fitness-to-stand-trial ruling against a former head of state shows how ICC procedure works from warrant to confirmation of charges to trial.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
ICC International Criminal Court — The permanent court at The Hague that tries individuals for genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity and aggression.
Rome Statute Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court — The 1998 treaty that created the ICC and defines the crimes it may try.
8 October 2026
Justice Bechu Kurian Thomas of the Kerala High Court held that courts must appoint a guardian for a person with dementia or Alzheimer's if the condition worsens and the circumstances warrant it.
The petitioner, sister of a 93-year-old bedridden woman with advanced dementia and Alzheimer's, was appointed guardian to handle her sister's bank accounts.
The court directed the General Hospital, Ernakulam, to constitute a Medical Board to report on the patient's condition.
The guardian must file reports once in six months with the Registrar General of the High Court.
Patient's age:
93
Report to Registrar General:
Once in 6 months / ആറു മാസത്തിലൊരിക്കൽ
Judge:
Justice Bechu Kurian Thomas / ജസ്റ്റിസ് ബെച്ചു കുര്യൻ തോമസ്
Why it matters for exams: Court rulings on guardianship and disability-related law are a recurring theme in polity and law questions.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Article 226 Article 226 of the Constitution — The provision under which High Courts issue writs for enforcing rights and for other purposes.
8 October 2026
US prosecutors unveiled a superseding indictment against ousted Venezuelan president Nicolas Maduro, 63, and his wife Cilia Flores, 69.
It adds a count of conspiracy to commit torture to the drug trafficking charges they already faced.
The case is before a Manhattan federal court in New York, where US District Judge Alvin Hellerstein presides.
Both had pleaded not guilty to the earlier drug trafficking charges, and their trial is scheduled for 1 June 2027.
The couple were captured by the US military on 3 January in their Caracas home and brought to New York, and have been held at Brooklyn's Metropolitan Detention Center since.
On the same day, Judge Hellerstein denied Flores' request for release for medical treatment, agreeing with prosecutors that she is an extreme flight risk.
US Attorney Jamie McDonald described the conduct set out in the indictment as truly unthinkable.
New count added:
Conspiracy to commit torture
Court:
Manhattan federal court, New York
Presiding judge:
Alvin Hellerstein
Trial date:
1 June 2027
Date of capture:
3 January
Why it matters for exams: The prosecution of a former head of state in a national court, and the court and trial dates involved, are standard international-law questions.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Superseding indictment A replacement indictment — A fresh indictment that replaces an earlier one, often to add or change counts before trial.
Flight risk Risk that an accused person will abscond — A court's assessment that a person released from custody may not return for trial.
8 October 2026
A Division Bench of the Kerala High Court has held that the Goshree Islands Development Authority (GIDA) is entitled to set up commercial kiosks at the Queen's Walkway in Kochi.
The judgment was delivered on Wednesday, 7 October 2026 by Dr. Justice A.K. Jayasankaran Nambiar and Justice Preeta A.K. in W.A.No.1423 & 1507/2026, and is reported as 2026 LiveLaw (Ker) 561.
The Bench set aside a Single Bench judgment that had barred the construction, and declared that GIDA has the authority to develop the road and the walkway on the 25 hectares of reclaimed land originally assigned to it in Sy.No.843 of Ernakulam Village for the Vypeen Bridges Project.
The writ petition by the Tritvam Apartment Owners Association had challenged 20 kiosks; the Court found no material showing that the apartment purchase agreements gave the petitioners any right over the road or the walkway.
GIDA's proposal, placed in an additional affidavit, keeps a clear and unobstructed walkway 2.5m wide, separated from the kiosk space by steel handrails.
The Court recorded that GIDA is a 'State' under Article 12 of the Constitution of India and is therefore obliged to safeguard the right of pedestrians to an obstruction-free walkway once the walkway is opened to public access.
Citation:
2026 LiveLaw (Ker) 561
Case numbers:
W.A.No.1423 & 1507/2026
Kiosks challenged:
20
Land assigned to GIDA:
25 hectares
Clear walkway width:
2.5m
Why it matters for exams: The order joins two standing exam themes — what counts as 'State' under Article 12 and the public's right to an unobstructed footpath — to a named Kerala statutory development authority.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
GIDA Goshree Islands Development Authority — The Kerala development authority for the Goshree islands around Kochi, which executed the Vypeen Bridges Project.
Article 12 Article 12 of the Constitution of India — It defines 'the State' for Part III, bringing other authorities within the territory of India under the fundamental rights.
8 October 2026
The Venad Express, which runs between Thiruvananthapuram and Shoranur, will soon be extended to Nilambur, Palakkad Divisional Railway Manager Madhukar Rohit has said.
He announced this at Nilambur station at a meeting with Nilambur municipal chairperson Padmini Gopinath and office-bearers of the Nilambur-Mysuru Railway Action Council.
The train reaches Shoranur at 12 noon and leaves on its return journey at 3 p.m., and the Railways plans to use that three-hour window for a Nilambur service.
The extension would fill the gap in train services on the Nilambur route between 10 a.m. and 3 p.m.
A platform able to take 24 coaches has been completed at Melattur station, and a crossing station is due to be commissioned next month.
The DRM also said the discontinued parcel service at Nilambur could resume if profitability is assured, and promised steps to secure stops at Cherukara for the Kottayam Express and the Nilambur-Shoranur MEMU.
Train:
Venad Express, Thiruvananthapuram-Shoranur
Proposed extension:
To Nilambur
Idle window at Shoranur:
12 noon to 3 p.m.
Platform at Melattur:
24 coaches
Why it matters for exams: The Nilambur-Shoranur line and the Palakkad railway division recur in Kerala geography and infrastructure questions.
Kerala PSC
In plain words
DRM Divisional Railway Manager — The officer in charge of a railway division; Nilambur and Shoranur fall in the Palakkad division of Southern Railway.
8 October 2026
The Kerala government has approved an E-Challan Amnesty Scheme under which motorists may settle pending traffic fines by paying 50 per cent of the prescribed amount.
The concession period runs from 1 November 2026 to 31 January 2027.
Only challans generated on or before 31 March 2026 qualify; challans issued after that date get no concession.
As on 31 March there were 1,00,22,255 pending challans, involving Rs 9,07,74,86,813.
Challans that have already gone to court are excluded, as are offences not listed in the scheme.
The listed offences include driving without a licence, permitting an unauthorised person to drive, over-speeding, dangerous driving, registration and permit violations and overloading.
Scheme:
E-Challan Amnesty Scheme
Concession:
50% of the prescribed fine
Period:
1 November 2026 to 31 January 2027
Challans cut-off:
Generated on or before 31 March 2026
Pending challans:
1,00,22,255
Amount pending:
Rs 9,07,74,86,813
Why it matters for exams: An amnesty scheme with exact dates, a cut-off and a pending-dues figure is the kind of State scheme Kerala PSC asks about directly.
Kerala PSC
In plain words
e-challan Electronic challan — A machine-generated notice of a motor vehicle offence, served and paid electronically.
8 October 2026
A Bench of Justice Aravind Kumar and Justice Vipul M. Pancholi has directed that the Udayasthamana Pooja at the Guruvayur Sree Krishna Temple be continued in the manner it was earlier performed, on Vrishchikam Ekadasi, which falls on 21 November 2026.
The direction is an interim measure, subject to the final outcome of the pending appeal.
The Court also permitted the Guruvayur Devaswom Managing Committee and the Thantri to hold the pooja on 22 October 2026.
The appeal, in P.C. Hary versus Guruvayoor Devaswom Managing Committee, was expedited and posted for the first week of December.
The appeal arises from a Kerala High Court judgment of December 2024 on the conduct of the pooja.
The Udayasthamana Pooja is a day-long ritual from sunrise to sunset comprising 18 poojas, a homam and abhishekam.
Bench:
Justice Aravind Kumar and Justice Vipul M. Pancholi
Vrishchikam Ekadasi:
21 November 2026
Additional day permitted:
22 October 2026
Appeal posted for:
First week of December
Why it matters for exams: It links temple administration under a State Devaswom statute with the courts' approach to religious practice, a recurring theme in both Kerala PSC and UPSC papers.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Thantri Chief priest of a temple — Under the Guruvayur Devaswom Act, 1978 the Thantri is treated as the final authority on religious and ceremonial matters of the temple.
8 October 2026
Leaders gathered for a pre-conference in the South Pacific, in Tuvalu and Fiji, this week to prepare for the COP31 climate summit in Türkiye in November.
UN Deputy Secretary-General Amina Mohammed urged "keeping 1.5 alive", the Paris Agreement target of 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels.
She said: "Overshoot is not a reason to surrender. It is a call to accelerate", to make overshoot as short and small as possible.
She asked leaders to deliver on COP28 Dubai promises: transition away from fossil fuels, triple renewable capacity and double energy efficiency by 2030.
She cited 655 million people still living without electricity and called for more early warning systems.
Pre-COP venues:
Tuvalu and Fiji
Paris temperature goal:
1.5 degrees Celsius
People without electricity:
655 million
Why it matters for exams: COP summits, the 1.5 degree target and COP28 commitments are staple environment and IR exam topics.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Overshoot Temporarily exceeding 1.5C — Going above the 1.5 degree limit before bringing temperatures back down.
Pre-COP Preparatory climate meeting before a COP — A ministerial-level meeting held before the main climate summit to set the agenda.
8 October 2026
The UN Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA) verified that at least 52 women and one girl were arrested or detained in Herat and Kabul between July and September, as announced on 8 October 2026.
Many were detained for not wearing a chador, having visible hair, wearing colourful scarves or makeup, or being in public without a mahram (male guardian). They were released after several hours.
UNAMA urged the de facto authorities to cease discriminatory enforcement practices targeting women and girls.
IOM's Returnee Resilience Overview covers nearly 6.5 million Afghans who returned from Iran and Pakistan since 2023.
In its key findings on undocumented returnee households and individuals who had been in Afghanistan for at least eight months, among those aged 14 and above, 53 per cent had no completed education and 69 per cent had not been employed in the 30 days before the interview; 77 per cent lived in transitional shelters.
Women and girls arrested (Jul-Sep):
At least 52 women and one girl
Returnees since 2023:
Nearly 6.5 million
Returnees with no completed education:
53 per cent
Why it matters for exams: UN missions, IOM data and human rights questions on Afghanistan feature in international relations papers.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
UNAMA United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan — The UN political mission that monitors and reports on human rights in Afghanistan.
IOM International Organization for Migration — The UN migration agency.
Mahram Male guardian — A male guardian whom women are required to be accompanied by in public under the dress code rules.
8 October 2026
The UN Security Council on 8 October 2026 unanimously renewed its Sudan sanctions regime for two months, until 11 December.
The regime comprises targeted sanctions and an arms embargo. The mandate of the panel of experts that monitors them now runs to 11 January 2027.
The text, drafted by the United States, is a "technical rollover" that leaves the mandate unchanged. It follows a one-month rollover adopted on 11 September.
The regime is rooted in the Darfur conflict of 2004, when the council moved to stem the flow of weapons into the region.
Separately, WHO says more than 700,000 displaced people in Tawila, Darfur face severe shortages; only 23 per cent of its $97.7 million humanitarian appeal for 2026 is funded.
Renewal period:
Two months, until 11 December
Panel of experts mandate:
Until 11 January 2027
Vote:
Unanimous
WHO Sudan appeal funded:
23 per cent of $97.7 million
Why it matters for exams: Security Council voting, sanctions regimes and panels of experts are staple UPSC and PSC international organisation topics.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Technical rollover Short renewal with mandate unchanged — A brief extension that keeps an existing mandate as it is.
Panel of experts Panel monitoring a sanctions regime — A group of experts that monitors how a Security Council sanctions regime is applied.
8 October 2026
Greater Bengaluru Authority (GBA) Chief Commissioner Maheshwar Rao spoke at the Mobility Symposium 2026, hosted by MoveInSync, on Thursday.
He said the aim is to bring closer to 3,000 more buses into the city and to improve footpaths and pedestrian access.
Deccan Herald reports the bus network carries around 4.4 million passengers and the Metro about one million daily.
He urged employers and tech parks to encourage employees to use buses and the Metro through incentives.
He also called for a long-term approach to urban drainage and outlined preliminary plans to identify locations for public heat shelters.
Buses planned:
Nearly 3,000 more
Bus riders:
Around 4.4 million
Metro riders:
About one million
Why it matters for exams: The Greater Bengaluru Authority replaced the BBMP model of city governance, so urban-governance questions on it are likely.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
GBA Greater Bengaluru Authority — The civic authority for Bengaluru that replaced the BBMP.