21 October 2026
Qatar and France issued a joint statement on 21 October 2026 after President Emmanuel Macron's state visit to Doha from 20 to 21 October 2026 at the invitation of Emir Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani. The two leaders stressed restoring freedom of navigation in the Strait of Hormuz without constraints or fees. They called for Israeli forces to withdraw in accordance with the agreed arrangements in Gaza and for urgent, safe and unhindered humanitarian aid. They opposed any annexation in the West Bank and called for an end to settlement policies and settler violence. On Lebanon they backed full implementation of the Trilateral Framework Agreement. They also said they were ready to support stabilisation and economic recovery projects with Syrian authorities, and agreed to expand defence, security and economic cooperation.
Leaders:
Emir Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani and President Emmanuel Macron
Lebanon framework named:
Trilateral Framework Agreement
Why it matters for exams: The Strait of Hormuz, the states on either side of it and the shipping it carries are a standing geography and current affairs topic.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Strait of Hormuz Strait of Hormuz — The narrow sea passage between the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman through which much of the world's seaborne oil moves.
21 October 2026
An open letter published on the cover of the New Statesman on 21 October 2026 urged the British government to amend the anti-terrorism legislation under which Palestine Action has been designated a terrorist organisation, and said the Irish novelist Sally Rooney's books must be available to the public. Its signatories include the actors Paul Mescal, Jessie Buckley, Daisy Edgar-Jones, Tilda Swinton, Susan Sarandon and Sharon Horgan, the broadcaster Gary Lineker, the director Lenny Abrahamson and the writers Arundhati Roy, Zadie Smith, Naomi Klein, Colm Toibin, Anne Enright, Anna Burns, J.M. Coetzee, Annie Ernaux, Anne Carson, Bernardine Evaristo, George Saunders, Jeanette Winterson, Irvine Welsh, William Boyd and William Dalrymple. The letter follows the announcement on 14 October 2026 by Rooney's publisher Faber and Faber that it would stop supplying her books for sale in the United Kingdom, because the legislation means it cannot pass on her United Kingdom earnings to her. Rooney has said that further publication of her work could constitute a serious criminal offence and that she is wholly prepared to accept the consequences. The United Kingdom Supreme Court is due to hear a case on the ban about two weeks after the letter.
Magazine:
The New Statesman
Publisher that withdrew the books:
Faber and Faber
Organisation proscribed:
Palestine Action
Why it matters for exams: Proscription of organisations and the free expression questions it raises are asked in law and international affairs sections.
UPSC
In plain words
Proscription Proscription — The legal designation of an organisation as terrorist, which makes membership or support a criminal offence.
Background
The International Court of Justice is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations.
It was established in June 1945 by the Charter of the United Nations and began work in April 1946.
The seat of the Court is at the Peace Palace in The Hague, Netherlands.
Of the six principal organs of the United Nations, it is the only one not located in New York.
The Court settles legal disputes submitted to it by States and gives advisory opinions on legal questions referred to it by authorized United Nations organs and specialized agencies.
It is composed of 15 judges, elected for terms of office of nine years by the United Nations General Assembly and the Security Council.
It is assisted by a Registry, its administrative organ, and its official languages are English and French.
Judges:
15
Term of office:
Nine years
Seat:
Peace Palace, The Hague
Official languages:
English and French
Why it matters for exams: The composition, seat and term of office of the International Court of Justice are standard questions on the United Nations system.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSC
In plain words
ICJ International Court of Justice — The principal judicial organ of the United Nations, seated at The Hague.
Registry Registry of the International Court of Justice — The administrative organ that assists the Court.
Background
The Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction is the international agreement that bans antipersonnel landmines.
It is usually referred to as the Ottawa Convention or the Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Treaty.
The Convention was concluded by the Diplomatic Conference on an International Total Ban on Anti-Personnel Land Mines at Oslo on 18 September 1997.
In accordance with its article 15, it was opened for signature at Ottawa, Canada, from 3 December 1997 until 4 December 1997, and remained open thereafter at United Nations Headquarters in New York until its entry into force.
122 States signed the Convention in Ottawa.
The Convention entered into force on 1 March 1999.
An instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession must be deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations, in his capacity as the Convention's depositary.
The articles of the Convention are not subject to reservations, and article 8 sets out the steps for clarifying and resolving questions of compliance, including fact-finding missions.
Concluded at:
Oslo, 18 September 1997
Opened for signature:
Ottawa, 3 to 4 December 1997
Signed in Ottawa:
122 States
Entry into force:
1 March 1999
Depositary:
Secretary-General of the United Nations
Why it matters for exams: Disarmament treaties are asked by their place of conclusion, their popular name and their depositary, all three of which this Convention separates neatly.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Depositary Treaty depositary — The authority that holds the original treaty and receives instruments of ratification and accession.
Reservation Reservation to a treaty — A declaration by which a State seeks to exclude or modify the effect of a treaty provision for itself.
Background
The Governing Council is the main decision-making body of the European Central Bank.
It consists of the six members of the Executive Board, plus the governors of the national central banks of the euro area countries.
Its responsibilities include formulating monetary policy for the euro area, covering monetary objectives, key interest rates and the supply of reserves in the Eurosystem.
The Governing Council usually meets twice a month, and takes its monetary policy decisions every six weeks.
Those decisions are explained in detail at a press conference held every six weeks, which the President chairs, assisted by the Vice-President.
The European Central Bank also publishes regular accounts of the Governing Council's monetary policy meetings before the date of the next one.
The accession of Lithuania to the euro area on 1 January 2015 triggered a system under which national central bank governors take turns holding voting rights on the Governing Council.
Separate meetings of the Governing Council are held so that monetary policy stays separate from the Bank's banking supervision responsibilities.
Executive Board members on the Council:
Six
Usual meeting frequency:
Twice a month
Monetary policy decisions:
Every six weeks
Voting rotation triggered by:
Lithuania joining the euro area
Why it matters for exams: Banking papers ask which body sets euro area interest rates, how it is composed and how often it decides.
Kerala PSCUPSCBank
In plain words
Eurosystem Eurosystem — The European Central Bank together with the national central banks of the countries that use the euro.
Background
The Paris Agreement is a legally binding international treaty on climate change.
It was adopted by 195 Parties at the UN Climate Change Conference (COP21) in Paris, France, on 12 December 2015, and entered into force on 4 November 2016.
Its overarching goal is to hold the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.
The Agreement works on a five-year cycle of increasingly ambitious climate action, with each successive national plan meant to reflect a higher degree of ambition than the previous version.
The national climate action plans submitted under it are known as nationally determined contributions, or NDCs.
Countries are also invited to formulate and submit long-term low greenhouse gas emission development strategies.
The Agreement established an enhanced transparency framework under which countries report on action taken and on support provided or received.
Information gathered through that framework feeds into the Global stocktake, which assesses collective progress towards the long-term climate goals.
Adopted at:
COP21, Paris, 12 December 2015
Parties adopting it:
195
Entry into force:
4 November 2016
Temperature goal:
Well below 2°C, pursuing 1.5°C
National plans:
Nationally determined contributions (NDCs)
Why it matters for exams: The temperature goal, the NDC cycle and the Global stocktake are the three parts of the Paris Agreement most often tested.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSC
In plain words
NDC Nationally determined contribution — A country's own climate action plan submitted under the Paris Agreement.
Global stocktake Global stocktake — The periodic assessment of collective progress towards the Paris Agreement's long-term goals.
Background
The Convention on Biological Diversity covers the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of genetic resources.
The United Nations Environment Programme convened the Ad Hoc Working Group of Experts on Biological Diversity in November 1988 to explore the need for an international convention on biological diversity.
The negotiating work culminated on 22 May 1992 with the Nairobi Conference for the Adoption of the Agreed Text of the Convention on Biological Diversity.
The Convention was opened for signature on 5 June 1992 at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, the Rio Earth Summit.
It remained open for signature until 4 June 1993, by which time it had received 168 signatures.
The Convention entered into force on 29 December 1993, which was 90 days after the 30th ratification.
The first session of the Conference of the Parties was scheduled for 28 November to 9 December 1994 in the Bahamas.
The Convention has two protocols, the Cartagena Protocol and the Nagoya Protocol, and its bodies include the Conference of the Parties, the Scientific Body known as SBSTTA and the Subsidiary Body on Implementation.
Agreed text adopted:
Nairobi, 22 May 1992
Opened for signature:
Rio Earth Summit, 5 June 1992
Signatures received:
168
Entry into force:
29 December 1993
Protocols:
Cartagena and Nagoya
Why it matters for exams: The Convention's three objectives, its Rio opening and its two protocols are standard biodiversity questions.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSC
In plain words
SBSTTA Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice — The scientific advisory body of the Convention on Biological Diversity.
Background
The African Union is a continental body consisting of the 55 member states that make up the countries of the African Continent.
It was officially launched in 2002 as a successor to the Organisation of African Unity, which ran from 1963 to 1999.
In May 1963, 32 Heads of independent African States met in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, to sign the Charter creating the Organisation of African Unity, Africa's first post-independence continental institution.
The Heads of State and Government of the Organisation of African Unity issued the Sirte Declaration calling for the establishment of an African Union.
The African Union was officially launched in July 2002 in Durban, South Africa, following a decision in September 1999 by its predecessor.
The aims of the African Union are laid out in the Constitutive Act of the African Union and the Protocol on Amendments to the Constitutive Act.
Its principal decision making organs are the Assembly of Heads of State and Government, the Executive Council, the Permanent Representatives Committee, the Specialised Technical Committees, the Peace and Security Council and the African Union Commission, while citizen and civil society participation is channelled through the Pan-African Parliament and the Economic, Social and Cultural Council.
Agenda 2063 is the strategic framework for Africa's long term socio-economic and integrative transformation.
Member states:
55
Predecessor:
Organisation of African Unity, 1963 to 1999
Officially launched:
July 2002, Durban, South Africa
Strategic framework:
Agenda 2063
Why it matters for exams: Regional groupings are asked by their founding charter, their predecessor body and their flagship framework, and the African Union has a distinct answer for each.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSC
In plain words
Agenda 2063 Agenda 2063: The Africa We Want — The African Union's long-term strategic framework for the continent's transformation.
Background
Governance of the World Health Organization takes place through the World Health Assembly, which is the supreme decision-making body, and the Executive Board, which gives effect to the decisions and policies of the Health Assembly.
The World Health Assembly is attended by delegations from all WHO Member States and focuses on a specific health agenda prepared by the Executive Board.
Its main functions are to determine the policies of the Organization, appoint the Director-General, supervise financial policies, and review and approve the proposed programme budget.
The Executive Board is composed of 34 technically qualified members elected for three-year terms.
The annual Board meeting is held in January or February, when the members agree upon the agenda for the World Health Assembly and the resolutions to be considered by it.
The Organization is headed by the Director-General, who is appointed by the Health Assembly on the nomination of the Executive Board.
The WHO Constitution was adopted by the International Health Conference held in New York 1946 and entered into force on 7 April 1948.
Supreme decision-making body:
World Health Assembly
Executive Board members:
34
Board member term:
Three years
Constitution in force:
7 April 1948
Why it matters for exams: The size of the Executive Board, the Assembly's powers and the date the WHO Constitution came into force all recur in general awareness papers.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSC
In plain words
World Health Assembly World Health Assembly — The decision-making body of the World Health Organization, attended by all its Member States.
Background
Alfred Nobel signed his third and last will on November 27, 1895, at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris.
The will directed that the interest on his fund be distributed annually as prizes to those who, during the preceding year, have conferred the greatest benefit to humankind.
The interest was to be divided into five equal parts, for physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature, and for the person who has done the most or best to advance fellowship among nations, the abolition or reduction of standing armies, and the establishment and promotion of peace congresses.
The will assigned the prizes for physics and chemistry to the Swedish Academy of Sciences, the prize for physiological or medical achievements to the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm, the prize for literature to the Academy in Stockholm, and the prize for champions of peace to a committee of five persons to be selected by the Norwegian Storting.
Nobel wrote that no consideration be given to nationality when awarding the prizes.
His family opposed the establishment of the prize and the prize awarders he had named refused to do what he had requested in his will, and it was five years before the first Nobel Prize could be awarded in 1901.
A sixth award, the Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, is listed alongside the Nobel Prizes.
Will signed:
November 27, 1895, Paris
Parts in the will:
Five
First prizes awarded:
1901
Peace prize committee:
Five persons selected by the Norwegian Storting
Why it matters for exams: Which institution awards which Nobel Prize, and which of the six awards was not in Nobel's will, are both recurring questions.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSC
In plain words
Storting Storting — The parliament of Norway, which selects the committee that awards the peace prize.
Background
The James Webb Space Telescope is a joint NASA/ESA/CSA mission, launched in 2021.
Webb studies every phase in the history of the Universe, from the first luminous glows after the Big Bang to the formation of solar systems and the evolution of our own Solar System.
It does not orbit around the Earth like the Hubble Space Telescope. It orbits the Sun 1.5 million kilometers from the Earth, at what is called the second Lagrange point, or L2.
Hubble, by comparison, orbits 560 kilometers above the Earth.
Webb has a 5-layer sunshield that protects the telescope from the infrared radiation of the Sun, Earth and Moon.
One of its most recognizable features is its large, segmented, gold-coated mirror.
Scientists, engineers and technicians from 14 countries contributed to the design, build, test, integration, launch, commissioning and operations of Webb.
Assembly and testing of the mirror and instruments occurred at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.
Partner agencies:
NASA, ESA and CSA
Distance from Earth:
1.5 million kilometers
Orbital position:
Second Lagrange point, L2
Sunshield layers:
5
Hubble's orbit for comparison:
560 kilometers above the Earth
Why it matters for exams: Questions on space telescopes turn on where the instrument sits, and the contrast between Hubble's low Earth orbit and Webb's position at L2 is the standard discriminator.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSC
In plain words
L2 Second Lagrange point — A point beyond the Earth where the gravity of the Sun and Earth lets a spacecraft keep station with little fuel.
Background
The Human Development Index is a summary measure of average achievement in key dimensions of human development: a long and healthy life, being knowledgeable and having a decent standard of living.
The HDI is the geometric mean of normalized indices for each of the three dimensions.
The health dimension is assessed by life expectancy at birth.
The education dimension is measured by mean of years of schooling for adults aged 25 years and more and expected years of schooling for children of school entering age.
The standard of living dimension is measured by gross national income per capita.
The HDI uses the logarithm of income, to reflect the diminishing importance of income with increasing GNI.
It was created to emphasize that people and their capabilities should be the ultimate criteria for assessing the development of a country, not economic growth alone.
The Index simplifies and captures only part of what human development entails: it does not reflect on inequalities, poverty, human security or empowerment, and the Human Development Report Office provides other composite indices as broader proxies on some of the key issues of human development, inequality, gender disparity and poverty.
Dimensions:
Three
Aggregation:
Geometric mean of normalized indices
Health indicator:
Life expectancy at birth
Standard of living indicator:
Gross national income per capita
Why it matters for exams: Papers ask which indicator stands for which HDI dimension and which mean is used to combine them, and a wrong answer here costs a whole question set.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSCBank
In plain words
Geometric mean Geometric mean — An average found by multiplying the values and taking the root, so a very low value in one dimension pulls the whole index down.
GNI Gross national income — The total income earned by a country's residents, used per head in the Index.