Background
UNESCO's State Party record for Colombia lists 9 properties inscribed on the World Heritage List — 6 cultural, 2 natural and 1 mixed.
The cultural properties are the Coffee Cultural Landscape of Colombia, the Historic Centre of Santa Cruz de Mompox, the National Archeological Park of Tierradentro, Port, Fortresses and Group of Monuments, Cartagena, Qhapaq Ñan, Andean Road System and San Agustín Archaeological Park.
The two natural properties are Los Katíos National Park and Malpelo Fauna and Flora Sanctuary.
The single mixed property, inscribed for both cultural and natural value, is Chiribiquete National Park.
Port, Fortresses and Group of Monuments, Cartagena is recorded with the year 1984 and the Coffee Cultural Landscape of Colombia with 2011.
Colombia's acceptance of the World Heritage Convention is recorded as 24 May 1983, and the country's Tentative List carries 13 sites, among them the Seaflower Marine Protected Area and the Tayrona and Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta National Parks.
Properties inscribed on the World Heritage List:
9
Acceptance of the Convention:
24 May 1983
The mixed property:
Chiribiquete National Park
Marine natural property:
Malpelo Fauna and Flora Sanctuary
The walled port city:
Port, Fortresses and Group of Monuments, Cartagena
The coffee-growing landscape:
Coffee Cultural Landscape of Colombia
Why it matters for exams: World Heritage counts and the names of inscribed properties are asked directly, and the mixed category is a common point of confusion.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Mixed property mixed World Heritage property — A property inscribed on the World Heritage List for both cultural and natural value.
Tentative List Tentative List — An inventory of the properties a State Party intends to consider for nomination to the World Heritage List.
Background
The National Library's geography article places Chile between the Pacific Ocean and the heights of the Andes at the far south of the American continent, and gives its continental surface as more than 756.626 square kilometres. It gives the continental length as 4.270 kilometres, measured from the border with Peru to Cape Horn, and the average width as 200 kilometres, the figures behind the country's long and narrow shape. Chile's western-most possession is Easter Island, with a surface close to 160 square kilometres, lying 3.780 km from the continental coast. Adding the Antarctic territory of 1.250.000 square kilometres gives a total surface of 2.006.626 square kilometres, which is the basis of what Chile calls its tri-continentality. Chile is bounded to the north by Peru; to the east it meets Bolivia and Argentina along a limit that runs broadly north to south and follows the Andes, watersheds, straight lines and the courses of rivers; to the west lies the Pacific Ocean and to the south the Chilean Antarctic Territory, which extends to the South Pole. Besides the Andes and the coastline, the relief is marked by the intermediate depression, running from the north of the country down to Puerto Montt, and by the coastal range, whose maximum altitude exceeds 2.000 metres in some stretches. Santiago is the capital, and the country is divided into 16 regions, each headed by a Regional Governor elected by direct popular vote, with 56 provinces under Provincial Presidential Delegates appointed by the President and 346 municipalities under an Alcalde and a Municipal Council.
Northern land limit:
Chile limita al norte con Perú
Eastern land limits:
Hacía el este con Bolivia y Argentina
Continental length:
4.270 kilómetros
Average width:
200 kilómetros
Continental surface:
756.626 kilómetros cuadrados
Total surface including the Antarctic territory:
2.006.626 kilómetros cuadrados
Capital:
Santiago, capital de Chile
Provinces:
56 provincias
Municipalities:
346 municipios
Why it matters for exams: The land neighbours, the length-and-width pair and the count of regions are the standing Chile geography questions, and tri-continentality is the phrase the Chilean state itself uses for its extent.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Tri-continentality tri-continentalidad — Chile's own description of itself as a country spread over South America, Oceania and Antarctica.
Intermediate depression depresión intermedia — The lowland corridor between the Andes and the coastal range, running from northern Chile down to Puerto Montt.
Background
The federal government's territory page gives the limits as the Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia and the República del Paraguay to the north; the República de Chile and the Océano Atlántico Sur to the south; the República Federativa del Brasil, the República Oriental del Uruguay and the Océano Atlántico Sur to the east; and the República de Chile to the west.
The land boundaries with those five countries run to 9.376 km in all: Chile: 5.308 km, Paraguay: 1.699 km, Brasil: 1.132 km, Uruguay: 887 km and Bolivia: 742 km.
The whole frontier perimeter on the American continental portion is about 15.000 km, of which 5.117 km is the river and sea frontage of the Río de la Plata and the Mar Argentino.
The coast of the Río de la Plata measures 392 km and the Atlantic coast 4.725 km.
The northernmost continental point is the confluence of the Grande de San Juan and Mojinete rivers in Jujuy province, and the southernmost is Cabo San Pío on the Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego.
The distance between the northern and southern extreme points is 3.694 km and the maximum continental width is 1.408 km.
The government's own travel page states that Cerro Aconcagua is the highest peak of the American continent and that it lies 180 km from the city of Mendoza along national route 7.
In the Instituto Geográfico Nacional's table of maximum heights, Cerro Aconcagua in Mendoza is listed at 6961 m, ahead of the Complejo Volcánico Ojos del Salado at 6879 m and Monte Pissis at 6788 m.
Border with Chile:
5.308 km
Border with Paraguay:
1.699 km
Border with Brazil:
1.132 km
Border with Uruguay:
887 km
Border with Bolivia:
742 km
Height of Cerro Aconcagua:
6961
Why it matters for exams: Neighbouring countries and the highest peak are asked about every country, and Argentina's longest border being with Chile along the Andes links the political map to the relief map.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSC
In plain words
IGN Instituto Geográfico Nacional — Argentina's national mapping agency, which fixes the country's official heights, limits and place names.
Mar Argentino Argentine Sea — The name Argentina gives to the part of the South Atlantic over its continental shelf.
Background
The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal was adopted on 22 March 1989 by the Conference of Plenipotentiaries in Basel, Switzerland. The Convention entered into force in 1992. The overarching objective of the Basel Convention is to protect human health and the environment against the adverse effects of hazardous wastes and other wastes requiring special consideration. Its scope of application covers a wide range of wastes defined as hazardous wastes based on their origin and/or composition and their characteristics, as well as four types of wastes defined as other wastes, which are household waste, incinerator ash, certain plastic wastes and certain electronic and electrical wastes. Based on the concept of prior informed consent, it requires that, before an export may take place, the authorities of the State of export notify the authorities of the prospective States of import and transit, providing them with detailed information on the intended movement. The movement may only proceed if and when all States concerned have given their written consent.
Date of adoption:
22 March 1989
Place of adoption:
Basel, Switzerland
Year of entry into force:
1992
Categories defined as other wastes:
four types
Governing principle for an export:
prior informed consent
Why it matters for exams: The Basel Convention's subject, its adoption at Basel and the prior informed consent rule are standard questions among the environmental conventions.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSC
In plain words
PIC Prior informed consent — The rule that a waste shipment may proceed only when every State of import and transit has given written consent.
Transboundary movement Transboundary movement of waste — The shipment of waste out of one country into or through another.
Conference of Plenipotentiaries Conference of Plenipotentiaries — A meeting of state representatives holding full powers to adopt and sign a treaty text.
3 October 2026
Chief Minister Pema Khandu said the ongoing Preliminary Feasibility Report exercise on the Siang Upper Multipurpose Project should not be read as the start of dam construction. The PFR involves only preliminary technical studies, including the collection of rock samples, and no land acquisition or loss of agricultural or forest land. If the project is found feasible, the next stages are a Social Impact Assessment, an Environment Impact Assessment and a Detailed Project Report, with public consultations mandatory. He said peaceful protest was a legitimate democratic right, but violence and destruction of property were criminal acts.
Current stage:
Pre-Feasibility Report
Later stages:
SIA, EIA, DPR
Why it matters for exams: The staged clearance path for a large dam (PFR, SIA, EIA, DPR) is a common polity and environment question.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSC
In plain words
SIA Social Impact Assessment — A study of how a project affects the people and communities around it.
DPR Detailed Project Report — The full technical and financial plan prepared once a project is found feasible.
3 October 2026
Wildlife Week is observed from October 2 to October 8 each year.
The district-level closing ceremony and prize distribution for Malappuram were held at the Government College, Malappuram.
The Social Forestry wing of the Kerala Forest Department organised the district programmes.
Divisional Forest Officer G. Dhanik Lal and Range Forest Officer P. K. Mujib Rahman addressed the gathering.
The stated aim of the week is to carry conservation messages to the general public.
Competitions for students were held across the district as part of the week.
Wildlife Week:
October 2 to October 8
Organising wing:
Social Forestry, Kerala Forest Department
Why it matters for exams: The dates of Wildlife Week and the wings of the Kerala Forest Department are repeatedly asked in environment sections.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Social Forestry Social Forestry wing — The wing of the Forest Department that works on tree planting and awareness outside reserved forests.
DFO Divisional Forest Officer — The officer in charge of a forest division.
Background
Standing background on the ozone treaty. Adopted on 16 September 1987, the Montreal Protocol is to date one of the rare treaties to achieve universal ratification. It regulates the production and consumption of nearly 100 man-made chemicals referred to as ozone depleting substances (ODS). The Kigali Amendment, adopted on 15 October 2016, added HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons) to the controlled list and approved a timeline for their gradual reduction by 80-85 per cent by the late 2040s. It entered into force on 1 January 2019 for ratifying nations.
Adopted:
16 September 1987
Controlled chemicals:
nearly 100
Kigali Amendment adds:
HFCs
Why it matters for exams: The Montreal Protocol and the Kigali Amendment are core environment-treaty questions.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
ODS Ozone depleting substances — Man-made chemicals whose production and consumption the Protocol regulates.
HFC Hydrofluorocarbon — Chemicals added to the controlled list by the Kigali Amendment.
Background
Hook: the IMO reported three hijacked ships freed off Somalia, at sea where UNCLOS sets the legal zones. The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea was opened for signature on 10 December 1982 in Montego Bay, Jamaica and entered into force on 16 November 1994. Coastal States exercise sovereignty over a territorial sea whose breadth does not exceed 12 nautical miles. They have sovereign rights in a 200-nautical mile exclusive economic zone (EEZ). The Convention also established the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea.
Territorial sea:
up to 12 nautical miles
Exclusive economic zone:
200 nautical miles
Opened for signature:
10 December 1982, Montego Bay
Why it matters for exams: Maritime zones and the sovereignty versus sovereign-rights distinction are regular UPSC and PSC points.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone — A zone up to 200 nautical miles where the coastal State has sovereign rights.
Background
Hook: The renaming to Keralam has put the State's basic profile back in focus.
The State portal gives Kerala's area as 38,863 square kilometres.
It lies on the south-west coast of India between the Arabian Sea and the Western Ghats.
The State has 14 districts, with Thiruvananthapuram as the capital.
The terrain falls into three zones: highlands (Malanad), midlands (Idanadu) and coastal plains.
Malayalam is the primary language.
Area:
38,863 sq km
Districts:
14
Capital:
Thiruvananthapuram
Natural zones:
Malanad, Idanadu, coastal plains
Why it matters for exams: State area, district count and the three natural divisions are basic Kerala PSC facts.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Malanad — The highland zone of Kerala along the Western Ghats.
Idanadu — The midland zone between the highlands and the coast.
Background
Hook: Kerala's rainfall-driven monsoon and building-curb debates make district climate figures relevant.
Kannur district has an area of 2,966 km2 and a population of 25.23 lakhs.
The district has a humid climate with annual rainfall of 3438 mm.
The mean maximum temperature is 35 degrees Celsius and the mean minimum 20 degrees Celsius.
Children aged 0-6 years number 274318, which is 10.87 percent of the total population.
Area:
2,966 km2
Population:
25.23 lakhs
Annual rainfall:
3438 mm
Mean temperature range:
20 to 35 degrees Celsius
Why it matters for exams: District-level area, rainfall and demographic figures are usual Kerala PSC statistics questions.
Kerala PSCUPSC
Background
Hook: Vembanad, the backwater that dominates Alappuzha, was in this archive's backwater and river profile.
Alappuzha is called the Venice of the East, a name attributed to Lord Curzon.
It has an 82 km contiguous coastline and 80% of the district lies in the coastal region.
Water bodies make up 13% of the district, and it is the only district in Kerala with no high land and forest area.
Kuttanad, the rice bowl of Kerala, lies below sea level.
The Pamba, Manimala and Achenkovil rivers form a delta region near Vembanad lake.
Coastline:
82 km contiguous
Coastal share of district:
80%
Water bodies:
13% of the district
Kuttanad:
Rice bowl of Kerala, below sea level
Why it matters for exams: Kuttanad and Alappuzha's unique geography are frequently asked in Kerala PSC and geography papers.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Kuttanad — The low-lying paddy region of Alappuzha that lies below sea level.
Background
Hook: KSEB is drawing peak-hour power from outside the State, which puts its own Idukki dam in focus.
The Idukki arch dam is built on the Periyar River.
It stands between two mountains, Kuravanmala (839 m) and Kurathimala (925 m).
It is described as 168.91 m (554 ft) tall and as one of the highest arch dams in Asia.
Technically it is a concrete double curvature parabolic thin arch dam.
The dam was constructed by and is owned by the Kerala State Electricity Board and supports a 780 MW hydroelectric power station.
River:
Periyar
Height:
168.91 m (554 ft)
Hills either side:
Kuravanmala (839 m) and Kurathimala (925 m)
Power station:
780 MW
Why it matters for exams: Dam height, river and ownership are common Kerala PSC and UPSC geography facts.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Arch dam — A curved dam that carries water pressure into the valley walls.
Background
Hook: KSEB's peak-hour power purchase and the talk of power cuts keep Idukki's hydro projects in focus.
Idukki was created on 26 January 1972 and lies in the Western Ghats.
The district administration says it is geographically known for mountainous hills and dense forests.
More than half of the district is covered by forests, and it has the lowest population density in Kerala.
It is the second largest district in area and is known as the spice garden of Kerala.
About 66% of the State's power needs come from the hydroelectric projects in Idukki.
Rank by area:
Second largest district
Hydro share of State power:
About 66%
Nickname:
Spice garden of Kerala
Why it matters for exams: District profile facts such as nicknames, rank by area and power share are staple Kerala PSC questions.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Western Ghats Mountain range along India's west coast — The mountain chain that runs along Kerala's eastern edge.
3 October 2026
A Nature paper dated 30 September 2026 models where mangroves can establish on open coasts worldwide.
It uses 20 years of wave data from 400 coastal sites.
The model rests on the idea of windows of opportunity, periods when waves are low enough for seedlings to establish.
It predicts mangrove presence or absence with 78.2% accuracy.
Modest increases or decreases in wave forcing affect the suitability of mangrove sites, with implications for future shifts under climate change.
Sonneratia species were the most predictable by wave conditions.
Coastal sites analysed:
400
Wave data span:
20 years
Prediction accuracy:
78.2%
Why it matters for exams: Mangroves and climate change adaptation are core environment topics, especially for coastal Kerala.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Windows of opportunity Periods of low wave energy — Spells calm enough for mangrove seedlings to take root.
3 October 2026
Kerala received 1,446.5 mm of rain against an expected 2,018.6 mm in the four months from 1 June to 30 September 2026, 28 per cent below normal.
IMD data rank 2026 as the seventh year with the lowest rainfall in the State in the 125 years since 1901.
Wayanad had a 53 per cent deficit and Idukki 47 per cent; Kollam recorded 38 per cent.
The weather department expects the northeast monsoon, locally called Thulavarsham, to be normal.
Yellow alerts for isolated heavy rain are in force for several districts from 3 to 6 October.
Deficit:
28 per cent
Actual rainfall:
1,446.5 mm
Expected rainfall:
2,018.6 mm
Worst-hit district:
Wayanad, 53 per cent
Why it matters for exams: Seasonal rainfall data, the two Kerala monsoons and the El Nino link are staple exam material.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Thulavarsham Northeast monsoon in Kerala — The October to December rains.
El Nino Warming of the central Pacific — IMD linked the weak monsoon to its influence.
3 October 2026
Union Environment Minister Bhupender Yadav and Rajasthan Chief Minister Bhajan Lal Sharma, during Wildlife Week 2026, initiated the process of releasing two captive-bred Great Indian Bustards (GIB) from the soft-release facility into the wild at Desert National Park, Jaisalmer. The release is planned for 4 October. The Ministry called it a milestone after ten years of effort, marking a shift from building a conservation-breeding population to rewilding. The GIB is the critically endangered State bird of Rajasthan. A Rewilding Aviary was inaugurated, and the breeding centres at Ramdevra and Sam were reviewed.
Birds to be released:
2
Release site:
Desert National Park, Jaisalmer
Years of effort:
10 years
Why it matters for exams: Species conservation, IUCN status and State symbols are staple environment questions.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Soft release Soft-release facility — A holding enclosure where captive-bred birds are prepared before going into the wild.
Background
WMO traces its roots to 1873, when the Vienna International Meteorological Congress tasked a committee with drafting rules for an international body to exchange weather information across borders. The resulting International Meteorological Organization (IMO) came into being at a congress in Rome and was a non-governmental organization. By the mid-1930s that status was seen as incompatible with the importance of meteorology, and the IMO Secretariat was moved to neutral Switzerland in 1939. The IMO became the World Meteorological Organization in March 1950, when its Convention entered into force. In 1951 WMO was designated a specialized agency of the United Nations, with a remit covering meteorology, hydrology and related geophysical sciences.
Predecessor:
International Meteorological Organization
Origin congress:
Vienna
UN status:
Specialized agency
Why it matters for exams: UN specialised agencies, their origins and mandates are a regular static-GK block in civil-service and PSC papers.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSC
In plain words
IMO International Meteorological Organization — The non-governmental forerunner of WMO, not to be confused with the International Maritime Organization.
Hydrology Study of water resources — The study, measurement and forecasting of water resources, part of WMO's mandate.
Background
UNESCO lists the Western Ghats as a World Heritage property in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra and Gujarat.
It consists of 39 component parts grouped into 7 sub-clusters, covering 795,315 hectares, and is listed under natural criteria (ix) and (x).
Its montane forest ecosystems influence the Indian monsoon, presenting one of the best examples of the tropical monsoon system on the planet.
Of about 650 tree species, 352 (54%) are endemic, and amphibians are 65% endemic.
UNESCO calls it one of the world's eight 'hottest hotspots' of biological diversity.
Component parts:
39, in 7 sub-clusters
Area:
795,315 hectares
Criteria:
(ix) and (x)
Tree species that are endemic:
352 (54%) of about 650
Why it matters for exams: The Western Ghats, with their States, serial structure and biodiversity role, are a frequent environment and geography topic, especially for Kerala candidates.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSC
In plain words
Serial property Serial property — A World Heritage site made up of several separate component parts treated as one property.
Endemic Endemic — Found naturally only in a particular region and nowhere else.
3 October 2026
In a first for the Union Territory, two mineral blocks in Jammu and Kashmir were successfully auctioned through the Ministry of Mines under the Central Government's mineral auction process, PIB said on 2 October 2026.
The Koot-Kapran Limestone Block in Anantnag covers 22.43 hectares with estimated resources of 4.75 million tonnes, explored up to the G-4 stage.
The Wantrag Limestone Block in Anantnag covers 5.36 hectares with estimated resources of 10.853 million tonnes, explored up to the G-3 stage including 159 metres of drilling.
The Government of Jammu and Kashmir had entrusted the auction of mineral blocks to the Ministry of Mines.
Blocks auctioned:
2 limestone blocks, Anantnag
Koot-Kapran block:
22.43 hectares; 4.75 million tonnes
Wantrag block:
5.36 hectares; 10.853 million tonnes
Auction conducted by:
Ministry of Mines
Why it matters for exams: Mineral auctions, resource estimates and Union Territory development are useful for economy and geography questions.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSC
In plain words
Mineral block — A defined area with identified mineral resources that is offered for mining through auction.
3 October 2026
CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (CSIR-NEERI) celebrated its 85th Foundation Day on 1 October 2026 at Nagpur.
Chief Guest Dr Prakash Chauhan, Director, National Remote Sensing Centre (ISRO), Hyderabad, delivered the lecture 'Exploring Earth's Moon with Indian Lunar Missions'.
He outlined Chandrayaan-1 to Chandrayaan-3, the planned Chandrayaan-4 lunar sample-return mission, and Chandrayaan-5/LuPEX, a planned ISRO-JAXA mission to the Moon's southern polar region to study lunar volatiles including water.
NEERI Director Dr S. Venkata Mohan highlighted research on water, air quality, climate change and waste management, and initiatives such as NEERI-ZAR for flood-affected areas of Assam.
A policy brief on climate-attributed ecosystem loss and damage reporting for India was released.
Institute:
CSIR-NEERI, Nagpur
Foundation Day:
85th, on 1 October 2026
Chief Guest:
Dr Prakash Chauhan, Director, NRSC
Planned ISRO-JAXA mission:
Chandrayaan-5/LuPEX
Why it matters for exams: India's planned lunar missions and CSIR's research laboratories are recurring science and technology topics.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSC
In plain words
CSIR-NEERI CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute — A CSIR laboratory in Nagpur working on environmental research.
NRSC National Remote Sensing Centre — The ISRO centre in Hyderabad for remote sensing applications.