Background
The World Trade Organization's General Council discharges its responsibilities under the Dispute Settlement Understanding through the Dispute Settlement Body (DSB). Like the General Council, the DSB is composed of representatives of all WTO Members — governmental delegates who take instructions from their capitals — so it is a political body rather than a court. The DSB administers the Understanding and oversees the whole dispute settlement process: it has the authority to establish panels, adopt panel and Appellate Body reports, maintain surveillance of implementation of rulings and recommendations, and authorize the suspension of obligations under the covered agreements. The general rule is that the DSB takes decisions by consensus, which is achieved if no WTO Member present at the meeting formally objects to the proposed decision. But at three key stages — establishing a panel, adopting panel and Appellate Body reports, and authorizing retaliation — the DSB must approve the decision unless there is a consensus against it. This procedure, commonly called negative or reverse consensus, means a losing Member cannot block a ruling on its own. The DSB usually has one regular meeting per month, and the WTO Secretariat provides its administrative support.
Composition:
Representatives of all WTO Members
Parent body:
The WTO General Council
Regular meetings:
One regular meeting per month
Decision rule at the three key stages:
Approved unless there is a consensus against it
Why it matters for exams: Negative consensus is the single mechanism that made WTO rulings binding where GATT rulings were not, and it is the standard answer to why WTO dispute settlement was called a step change.
Kerala PSCUPSCBank
In plain words
DSB Dispute Settlement Body — The WTO body of all Members that establishes panels, adopts reports and authorises retaliation.
DSU Dispute Settlement Understanding — The WTO agreement setting out the rules and procedures governing the settlement of disputes.
Negative consensus Negative or reverse consensus — A rule under which a decision is taken automatically unless every Member agrees not to take it.
Appellate Body WTO Appellate Body — The standing body that hears appeals on points of law from WTO dispute panels.
Suspension of obligations Suspension of obligations — Retaliation a winning Member may be authorised to apply when the losing Member does not comply.
Background
On 1 November 1967, Malta's Ambassador to the United Nations, Arvid Pardo, asked the General Assembly to open its eyes to a looming conflict over the oceans, speaking of super-Power rivalry spreading to the seas, of pollution and of conflicting legal claims. His speech began a process that spanned 15 years and included the creation of the United Nations Seabed Committee, a treaty banning nuclear weapons on the seabed, and the adoption by the General Assembly of the declaration that all resources of the seabed beyond the limits of national jurisdiction are the common heritage of mankind. That process led to the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea. Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea deals with mining of minerals lying on the deep ocean floor outside nationally regulated ocean areas, in what is commonly known as the international seabed area. The International Seabed Authority is already established and functioning, and it organizes and controls activities in the deep seabed beyond national jurisdiction with a view to administering its resources. Alongside it, the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea has competence to settle ocean-related disputes arising from the application or interpretation of the Convention, and the Convention itself was opened for signature on 10 December 1982 at Montego Bay, Jamaica.
Seabed resources beyond national jurisdiction:
Common heritage of mankind
Convention part on deep seabed mining:
Part XI
Body administering the deep seabed:
International Seabed Authority
Convention opened for signature:
10 December 1982, Montego Bay, Jamaica
Why it matters for exams: The common heritage of mankind principle, Part XI and the International Seabed Authority come up together whenever deep-sea mining is in the news.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Common heritage of mankind Common heritage of mankind — The principle that resources beyond any State's jurisdiction belong to humanity as a whole and cannot be appropriated.
ISA International Seabed Authority — The body that organizes and controls mineral activities in the deep seabed beyond national jurisdiction.
ITLOS International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea — The tribunal set up under the Law of the Sea Convention to settle disputes about its application or interpretation.
International seabed area International seabed area — The ocean floor beyond the limits of national jurisdiction, where mining is governed by Part XI.
Background
The United Nations General Assembly, by resolution A/RES/50/245, adopted the Comprehensive Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty and requested the Secretary-General of the United Nations, in his capacity as Depositary of the Treaty, to open it for signature at the earliest possible date. The Treaty was opened for signature in September 1996. In accordance with Article XIV of the Treaty, it will enter into force only after all 44 States listed in Annex 2 to the Treaty have ratified it. The United Nations lists the Annex-2 States that have ratified the Treaty, and records that the Secretary-General has appealed to all remaining States whose ratifications are required for the Treaty to enter into force to accelerate the completion of their ratification processes. Article XIV also states that if the Treaty has not entered into force three years after the date of the anniversary of its opening for signature, a conference may be held upon the request of a majority of ratifying States, to examine to what extent the requirements for entry into force have been met and to decide on measures to accelerate the ratification process. The Treaty was negotiated in the Conference on Disarmament, which had established a subsidiary body on a test ban in 1982, and a final draft was presented to that Conference in June 1996.
Annex 2 States whose ratification is required:
44
Entry-into-force article:
Article XIV
Adopting resolution:
A/RES/50/245
Opened for signature:
September 1996
Why it matters for exams: The 44-State Annex 2 condition is the reason a treaty signed three decades ago is still not in force, and that mechanism is asked in both prelims and disarmament answers.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
CTBT Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty — A treaty banning all nuclear explosions, which has been signed but has not yet entered into force.
Annex 2 Annex 2 to the CTBT — The list of 44 States whose ratification the Treaty requires before it can take effect.
Depositary Depositary of a treaty — The authority that holds the original treaty text and records signatures and ratifications.
Ratification Ratification — A State's formal act of binding itself to a treaty after signing it.
Conference on Disarmament Conference on Disarmament — The multilateral forum in Geneva where disarmament treaties are negotiated.
Background
The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations was concluded at Vienna on 18 April 1961, after preparatory work by the International Law Commission. The introductory note in the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law says that, in terms of near-universal participation by sovereign States, it may claim to be the most successful of the instruments drawn up under the United Nations framework for codification and progressive development of international law. The Convention provides a framework for the establishment, maintenance and termination of diplomatic relations on a basis of consent between independent sovereign States. It specifies the functions of diplomatic missions, the formal rules regulating appointments, declarations of persona non grata of a diplomat who has in some way given offence, and precedence among heads of mission. Article 22 confirms the inviolability of mission premises, barring any right of entry by law enforcement officers of the receiving State and imposing on the receiving State a special duty to protect the premises. On the diplomatic bag, the rule ultimately adopted in article 27 is that while the sending State has a duty to use the bag only for diplomatic documents or articles for official use, the bag could not be opened or detained under any circumstances. The Convention and its two Optional Protocols entered into force on 24 April 1964.
Concluded at:
Vienna, 18 April 1961
Entry into force:
24 April 1964
Inviolability of mission premises:
Article 22
Preparatory body:
International Law Commission
Why it matters for exams: Every embassy dispute in the news turns on this Convention, and the article number for the inviolability of premises is a favourite one-mark question.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Persona non grata Persona non grata — A declaration by the receiving State that a named diplomat is no longer acceptable to it.
Inviolability Inviolability of mission premises — The rule that the receiving State's officers have no right to enter a mission's premises and must protect them.
Receiving State Receiving State — The country in which a foreign diplomatic mission is located.
ILC International Law Commission — The UN body of legal experts that drafts conventions codifying international law.
Diplomatic bag Diplomatic bag — A sealed container of official correspondence of a mission, which may not be opened or detained.
Background
The Peace and Security Council (PSC) is the standing decision-making organ of the African Union for the prevention, management and resolution of conflicts. It is a collective security and early warning arrangement meant to allow timely responses to conflict and crisis situations in Africa, and it is the key pillar of the African Peace and Security Architecture (APSA). The Protocol Relating to the Establishment of the Peace and Security Council was adopted on 9 July 2002 in Durban, South Africa, entered into force in December 2003, and the PSC became fully operational in early 2004. The PSC has 15 members with equal voting powers. All members are elected by the AU Executive Council and endorsed by the AU Assembly during its ordinary sessions. For continuity, five members are elected for three-year terms and 10 for two-year terms. There are no permanent members, and the PSC Protocol does not prevent any Member State from seeking immediate re-election.
Members:
15
Terms:
5 members for three years, 10 members for two years
Permanent members:
None
Protocol adopted:
9 July 2002, Durban, South Africa
Fully operational:
Early 2004
Why it matters for exams: Comparing the African Union's Peace and Security Council with the UN Security Council is a standard answer-writing question, and the absence of permanent members is the sharpest contrast.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
PSC Peace and Security Council of the African Union — The AU's standing organ for preventing, managing and resolving conflicts in Africa.
APSA African Peace and Security Architecture — The African Union's overall framework of bodies and instruments for peace, security and stability.
AU Executive Council African Union Executive Council — The AU organ of foreign ministers that elects the PSC's members.
Collective security Collective security — An arrangement in which members treat a threat to one as a concern of all and respond together.
Background
Under General Assembly resolution 377A(V), known as "Uniting for peace", an emergency special session can be convened within 24 hours. The resolution was adopted by the General Assembly on 3 November 1950. It resolves that if the Security Council, because of lack of unanimity of the permanent members, fails to exercise its primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security where there appears to be a threat to the peace, a breach of the peace or an act of aggression, the General Assembly shall consider the matter immediately with a view to making appropriate recommendations to Members for collective measures — including, in the case of a breach of the peace or an act of aggression, the use of armed force when necessary. If the Assembly is not in session at the time, it may meet in emergency special session within twenty-four hours of the request. Such a session shall be called if requested by the Security Council on the vote of any seven members, or by a majority of the Members of the United Nations. Eleven emergency special sessions have been convened, on subjects including the Middle East, the Question of Congo, the Question of Palestine, the situation in Afghanistan, the Question of Namibia and Ukraine. The figure of seven is the resolution's own wording: 377A(V) was adopted when the Security Council had eleven members. The Charter amendment that came into force on 31 August 1965 enlarged the Council from eleven to fifteen members and raised the vote for a decision on a procedural matter from seven members to nine. Rule 8(b) of the Rules of Procedure of the General Assembly accordingly provides that an emergency special session shall be convened within twenty-four hours of a request from the Security Council on the vote of any nine members.
Resolution:
377A(V)
Adopted:
3 November 1950
Session can be convened within:
24 hours
Security Council votes to request, as 377A(V) is worded:
Any seven members
Security Council votes to request, under rule 8(b) of the Assembly's Rules of Procedure:
Any nine members
Other route:
A majority of the Members of the United Nations
Why it matters for exams: This is the single most-asked piece of UN procedure after the veto, because it is the route by which the General Assembly acts when the Security Council is deadlocked.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Emergency special session Emergency special session of the UN General Assembly — A session the Assembly may hold within 24 hours of a request when the Security Council cannot act.
Lack of unanimity Lack of unanimity of the permanent members — The situation in which one or more permanent members vote against a draft Security Council resolution, blocking it.
Collective measures Collective measures — Steps Members take together against a threat to peace, which may include the use of armed force.
Background
The Economic and Social Council is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations, all of them established under the UN Charter when the Organization was founded in 1945. It is described by the United Nations as the principal body for coordination, policy review, policy dialogue and recommendations on economic, social and environmental issues, as well as for the implementation of internationally agreed development goals. It serves as the central mechanism for activities of the UN system and its specialized agencies in the economic, social and environmental fields, and it supervises subsidiary and expert bodies. It has 54 Members, elected by the General Assembly for overlapping three-year terms, so that only part of the membership changes in any one year. The United Nations calls it the Organization's central platform for reflection, debate and innovative thinking on sustainable development.
Members:
54
Elected by:
UN General Assembly
Term:
Overlapping three-year terms
UN principal organs:
6
Why it matters for exams: The composition and term of each UN principal organ is a standing objective question, and ECOSOC's 54 members are confused with the Security Council's 15 almost every year.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSC
In plain words
ECOSOC Economic and Social Council — The UN organ that coordinates the economic, social and environmental work of the UN system.
Principal organ Principal organ of the United Nations — One of the six bodies set up by the UN Charter itself, as distinct from programmes and agencies created later.
Specialized agency UN specialized agency — An autonomous international organisation linked to the UN by agreement, such as the ILO or the FAO.
Background
India established diplomatic relations with Peru in March 1963. Until 1969 the Indian Ambassador in Chile was concurrently accredited to Peru. In September 1969 India opened its resident Mission in Lima, and the first resident Indian Ambassador in Lima took charge in November 1973. The 50th anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic relations between India and Peru was celebrated on 25 March 2013, and during the ceremony a special postal stamp depicting Taj Mahal and Machu Picchu was issued. For the 60th anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic relations, a special commemorative postal stamp was released by Peruvian Post on 14 March 2024. The first India-Peru Joint Commission Meeting was held on June 21, 2017. The bilateral cooperation spans areas that include energy, mines, textiles, agriculture, science, technology, defence and space.
Diplomatic relations established:
March 1963
Resident Indian Mission opened in Lima:
September 1969
First resident Indian Ambassador took charge:
November 1973
Fiftieth anniversary ceremony:
25 March 2013
Sixtieth anniversary stamp by Peruvian Post:
14 March 2024
Why it matters for exams: The year relations were established and the year a resident mission opened are the two facts most often asked about India's ties with a Latin American country, and in Peru's case they fall in different years.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
concurrent accreditation concurrent accreditation of an ambassador — The practice of one resident ambassador also representing their country to a second state where there is no mission.
resident Mission resident diplomatic mission — An embassy staffed and located in the host country, as against accreditation from a neighbouring capital.
Joint Commission Meeting India-Peru Joint Commission Meeting — The standing bilateral mechanism at which the two governments review the whole relationship.
Background
The Andean Community, abbreviated CAN, is a trade bloc of four countries - Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. The Headquarters of CAN are located in Lima, Peru. Chile, Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay are associate members, while Panama, Mexico, and Spain are Observers. Regional integration in the Andean countries began with the signing of the Cartagena Agreement by Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru in 1969, creating the Andean Pact with the objective of creating a Customs Union and a Common Market. Chile withdrew in 1976 and Venezuela, which joined the Pact in 1973, withdrew in 2006. In 1979 the Andean Council of Foreign Ministers, the Andean Court of Justice and the Andean Parliament were created. In 1996 the Protocol of Trujillo renamed the Pact as the Andean Community and converted the Board of the Cartagena Agreement into a General Secretariat based in Lima, Peru. In 2001 the Andean Passport was created, enabling citizens of member states to travel between the countries without visa.
Member countries:
Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru
Headquarters:
Lima, Peru
Founding treaty:
Cartagena Agreement
Year the Andean Pact was created:
1969
Protocol that renamed the Pact:
Protocol of Trujillo
Why it matters for exams: Regional blocs and where their secretariats sit are routinely asked, and Peru is the only Andean Community member that also hosts the bloc's headquarters.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
CAN Andean Community — The South American trade bloc of Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru, with its headquarters in Lima.
Cartagena Agreement the 1969 treaty that created the Andean Pact — The treaty whose signing began Andean regional integration, aiming at a customs union and a common market.
associate member associate membership of a bloc — A country linked to a bloc by agreement without being a full member of it.
Customs Union customs union — An arrangement in which members drop tariffs among themselves and apply a common tariff to outsiders.
Background
The United Nations says of the disputed Essequibo region that it "since 1899 has functioned as a territory administered by Guyana but is claimed by Venezuela".
Before the matter reached court it was handled through the Good Offices process of the United Nations Secretary-General, who appointed a Personal Representative on the border controversy between Guyana and Venezuela.
Guyana then filed its Application instituting proceedings at the International Court of Justice in 2018, and the case is on the Court's list as Arbitral Award of 3 October 1899 (Guyana v. Venezuela).
The Court has ruled at three stages. It delivered its Judgment of 18 December 2020 on the Jurisdiction of the Court; it delivered its Judgment of 6 April 2023 on the preliminary objection raised by Venezuela; and by its Order of 1 December 2023 the Court indicated provisional measures, an Order it later considered again on a request for modification.
The case then went to the merits. Guyana filed its Memorial of Guyana on the merits, Venezuela filed a Counter-Memorial and a Rejoinder, and public hearings on the merits were held at the Peace Palace, concluding with the Conclusion of the public hearings on the merits held from Monday 4 to Monday 11 May 2026.
Disputed region:
Essequibo
Court:
International Court of Justice
Case on the Court's list as:
Arbitral Award of 3 October 1899 (Guyana v. Venezuela)
Applicant:
Guyana
Judgment on jurisdiction:
Judgment of 18 December 2020
Judgment on the preliminary objection:
Judgment of 6 April 2023
Provisional measures:
Order of 1 December 2023
Seat of the hearings:
Peace Palace
Why it matters for exams: A live territorial case between two of South America's neighbours tests three things at once: which court hears it, what each stage of ICJ procedure is called, and the United Nations machinery that handled the controversy before it was litigated.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
provisional measures provisional measures — Interim orders the International Court of Justice can make to protect the rights of a party while a case is still being heard.
preliminary objection preliminary objection — An objection a respondent State raises to stop a case before the merits are argued, usually on jurisdiction or admissibility.
Good Offices Good Offices process — A United Nations method of helping two states settle a dispute through a representative of the Secretary-General, without a binding ruling.
Peace Palace Peace Palace — The building at The Hague that houses the International Court of Justice and its public sittings.
Background
The Embassy of India in Caracas records that the two countries marked the 65th Anniversary of establishment of diplomatic relations in 2024, and that Resident Embassies have been in Caracas and New Delhi for over four decades.
In the hydrocarbon sector, ONGC Videsh Limited (OVL) and Corporacion Venezolana del Petroleo (CVP), a subsidiary of PdVSA, run a joint venture called PetroleraIndovenezolana SA for the production and exploration of oil in the San Cristobal field. OVL holds 40% of it and PDVSA has 60%, and the OVL investment in the project is approximately US$ 200 million.
An international consortium of ONGC Videsh Limited (OVL), Indian Oil Corporation (IOC), Oil India Limited (OIL), Repsol of Spain and Petronas of Malaysia was declared the winner of an international bidding process in April 2008 to develop an oil project in Carabobo in the Orinoco belt of Venezuela.
On trade, the embassy gives bilateral trade for 2023-24 as 1,175.02 USD million in all, made up of Indian exports of 175.33 and Indian imports of 999.69, on figures from DGCI&S, Kolkata. Mineral fuels and oils head the embassy's list of main items in both directions, and on the embassy's own figures India's imports from Venezuela are far larger than its exports to it.
On the cultural side, an India Chair was set up at the University of Los Andes and at the Central University of Venezuela in Caracas, and the Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Study Centre was inaugurated in Caracas. The Mahatma Gandhi Foundation Venezuela runs regular diploma courses on Gandhian philosophy, and the International Day of Yoga has been celebrated annually since 2015.
Anniversary of diplomatic relations marked:
65th Anniversary of establishment of diplomatic relations in 2024
Indian mission:
Caracas
Bilateral trade, 2023-24 (USD million):
1,175.02
India's exports (USD million):
175.33
India's imports (USD million):
999.69
Oil joint venture:
PetroleraIndovenezolana SA
OVL stake in the joint venture:
40%
OVL investment in the project:
US$ 200 million
Why it matters for exams: India's relations with a country are asked through four handles - when relations were established, where the missions are, what the trade is and which Indian public sector firms are present - and all four are on the record here, including the energy joint venture that explains why imports from Venezuela dwarf exports to it.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
OVL ONGC Videsh Limited — The overseas arm of India's Oil and Natural Gas Corporation, which holds India's oil and gas assets abroad.
PdVSA Petroleos de Venezuela SA — Venezuela's state oil company, whose subsidiary CVP is OVL's partner in the joint venture.
DGCI&S Directorate General of Commercial Intelligence and Statistics — The Indian office in Kolkata that compiles the country's official foreign trade figures.
Background
Venezuela's legislature is the single-chamber National Assembly (Asamblea Nacional), which sits in the Palacio Federal Legislativo in Caracas.
The Assembly's own history page records that the old Congress ended when a national constituent assembly (Asamblea Nacional Constituyente) was convened to replace the Constitution of 1961 (Constitución de 1961). On 3 November 1999 (3 de noviembre de 1999) that body approved, with the votes of 70 of its members, a unicameral parliamentary system (sistema parlamentario unicameral), and the Senate was abolished (eliminado el Senado).
The present Constitution of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (Constitución de la República Bolivariana de Venezuela) was approved by popular vote in a referendum on 15 December 1999 (15 de diciembre de 1999), and the new National Assembly was installed with 165 members (165 miembros).
Under Article 186 (Artículo 186) of that Constitution, deputies are elected in each federal entity by universal, direct, personalised and secret vote with proportional representation, on a population base of one point one per cent (uno coma uno por ciento) of the country's total population. Each federal entity elects three further deputies, and the indigenous peoples of the country elect three deputies of their own.
Public power is divided into five branches rather than three. Besides the legislative power (Poder Legislativo) there are the executive power (Poder Ejecutivo), the judicial power (Poder Judicial), the citizen power (Poder Ciudadano) and the electoral power (Poder Electoral); the Assembly's own rules require it to notify all four of them when it is formally installed. The citizen power is represented by the Consejo Moral Republicano, and the bodies that appear alongside it in the Assembly's rules include the Defensoría del Pueblo, the Ministerio Público, the Contraloría General de la República and the Consejo Nacional Electoral.
Legislature:
Asamblea Nacional
Chambers:
unicameral
Members at installation:
165
Constitution approved by referendum on:
15 de diciembre de 1999
Constitution replaced:
Constitución de 1961
Branches of public power:
5
Seat of the Assembly:
Palacio Federal Legislativo
Why it matters for exams: Most constitutions separate three powers, so a state that recognises five is a standing comparison question, and the move from a bicameral Congress to a single-chamber National Assembly is the kind of structural change an examiner asks about directly.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Asamblea Nacional National Assembly — Venezuela's single-chamber legislature.
unicameral single-chamber — A legislature with only one house, as against a bicameral one with two.
Poder Ciudadano citizen power — A branch of public power in Venezuela, represented by the Consejo Moral Republicano.
Poder Electoral electoral power — The branch of public power that runs elections in Venezuela.
Background
The official name of the country is the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela and its capital is Caracas. The country fact sheet published by the Embassy of India in Caracas describes it as a federal republic made up of 23 states, a federal district and 72 island dependencies in the Caribbean Sea.
Spanish is the language of the country and the currency is the Bolivar Soberano (Bs.). The system of government is described as a Participative Democracy with Presidential System.
Caracas itself is given a population of about 5 million, and the other main cities listed include Valencia, Maracaibo, Barquisimeto.
The fact sheet lists the country's memberships, which include NAM, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, OPEC, PCA, Petrocaribe, UN, UNASUR, UNCTAD, UNESCO, WHO, WIPO, WMO and WTO. It is an observer rather than a full member in Caricom and in LAS.
The United Nations gives the country's date of admission as a Member State as 15-11-1945, under the name Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of.
The international calling code is +58. The national bird is the Venezuelan Troupial, the national flower the Venezuelan Orchid (Cattleya mossiae) and the national tree the Araguaney.
Capital:
Caracas
Official name:
Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela
Language:
Spanish
Currency:
Bolivar Soberano (Bs.)
States:
23
Island dependencies in the Caribbean Sea:
72
UN date of admission:
15-11-1945
International calling code:
+58
Why it matters for exams: Capital, currency, official language, federal structure and the list of organisations a country belongs to are the standing facts every Country Focus question is built from, and the observer-versus-member distinction in Caricom and LAS is exactly the detail an examiner uses to separate answers.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSC
In plain words
Bolivar Soberano Bolivar Soberano (Bs.) — The currency of Venezuela.
NAM Non-Aligned Movement — A grouping of states that chose not to align formally with any major power bloc.
Caricom Caribbean Community — The regional grouping of Caribbean states, in which Venezuela is an observer.
UNASUR Union of South American Nations — A regional body of South American states.
Background
The Embassy of India in Havana records that India was among the first countries to extend recognition to the new Cuban government following the Cuban revolution in January 1959. The visit of Che Guevara to India from 30 June to 4 July 1959 consolidated the ties, which led to embassies being opened in the two capitals; the first head of the Mission presented credentials on 12 January 1960 in Havana. The two countries maintain close contacts with each other in UN, NAM and other international fora, and the brief records the first ever visit by the President of India to Cuba. India has extended five Lines of Credit to the tune of $243 million to the Government of Cuba, in agriculture, agro-food, and renewable energy. Cuba is a member country of the International Solar Alliance and holds its Vice-President position for the Latin America and the Caribbean region. Indian exports to Cuba are led by pharmaceutical products and organic chemicals, while imports from Cuba consist mainly of pharmaceutical and tobacco products. Cuba has 70 slots under India's technical and economic cooperation programme, and India donated 60 tractors to Cuba to assist its agriculture sector.
Credentials of the first head of the Mission:
12 January 1960
Che Guevara's visit to India:
30 June to 4 July 1959
Lines of Credit:
5, worth $243 million
Training slots offered to Cuba:
70
Tractors donated:
60
Why it matters for exams: India's bilateral relations with a country in focus are asked on when relations were established, what credit was extended and which multilateral bodies the two share.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
NAM NAM — The movement of countries that chose not to side with either power bloc in the Cold War; Cuba has hosted its summits and India is a founder of it.
Lines of Credit Lines of Credit — A concessional loan India extends to a partner government for named projects, usually tied to Indian goods and services.
Background
The United Nations lists Cuba among the Original 51 Members of the Organization - that is, Cuba was an original Member of the United Nations, from its founding year. India, Haiti, Mexico and the United States are on the same list of original Members. The World Trade Organization's member information page for Cuba records that Cuba has been a member of the WTO since 1995, and a member of GATT since 1 January 1948. Cuba also appears on the WTO list of the 128 countries that had signed GATT by 1994, which makes Cuba one of the oldest participants in the post-war trading system.
Original UN Members:
51
Year of UN founding membership:
1945
WTO membership:
1995
GATT membership:
1 January 1948
Countries that had signed GATT by 1994:
128
Why it matters for exams: Which states were original Members of the United Nations, and which were GATT members before the WTO existed, are both standard objective questions.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSC
In plain words
GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade — The tariff-cutting agreement that governed world trade before the World Trade Organization replaced it.
Original 51 Members Original 51 Members — The states that took part in founding the United Nations and signed its Charter at the start.
Background
The Embassy of India in Havana gives the official name of the country as the Republic of Cuba. Its capital is Havana, with a population of about 2 million, and its area is 110,860 Sq. Kms. The language is Spanish and the currency is the Cuban Peso, abbreviated CUP. Besides the capital, the major cities listed are Santiago de Cuba, Pinar del Rio, Matanzas, Guantanamo, Holguin, Camaguey. Nickel, Copper, Sulphur and some Oil are given as the major natural resources. Sugarcane, Citrus, Coffee, Tobacco, Potato, Rice are given as the principal crops. Cuba keeps standard time five hours behind GMT.
Official name:
Republic of Cuba
Capital:
Havana
Area:
110,860 Sq. Kms.
Language:
Spanish
Currency:
Cuban Peso
Why it matters for exams: Capital, currency, language, area and principal crops of a country in the news are the plainest one-mark questions in both PSC and UPSC preliminary papers.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSC
In plain words
CUP Cuban Peso — The currency unit of Cuba.
GMT GMT — The world reference time against which a country's standard time is measured.
4 October 2026
Nearly 1,500 Myanmar nationals deported from Malaysia, among them 86 women, reached southern Yangon early on Sunday aboard two navy warships and a hospital ship.
A regional government minister, Nay Lin Tun, confirmed the arrival, and a foreign ministry official, Han Win Aung, said the returnees were genuine citizens.
The group is the first instalment of 5,000 people Malaysia has arranged to return in stages.
Malaysia's Home Ministry said 10,388 more Myanmar nationals were being held in immigration detention centres.
The United Nations Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Myanmar, Kelley E. Currie, said that in her assessment the risk of refoulement in the present circumstances is substantial.
Malaysia hosts about 215,600 refugees and asylum seekers registered with the United Nations refugee agency, about 126,000 of them Rohingya.
Arrived in Yangon:
nearly 1,500
Women among them:
86
Still in Malaysian immigration detention:
10,388
Total to be returned in stages:
5,000
Why it matters for exams: A concrete case for questions on refoulement, on the mandate of a United Nations Special Rapporteur, and on Myanmar's displacement crisis.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Special Rapporteur Independent expert of the UN Human Rights Council — An independent expert appointed by the Human Rights Council who serves in an individual capacity and is not a United Nations staff member.
Yangon Myanmar's largest city — Myanmar's largest city and former capital, on the Yangon river delta.
4 October 2026
Central Reserve Police Force units, including its CoBRA units, and the Indo-Tibetan Border Police have begun vacating camps in Dantewada district of Chhattisgarh.
The camp at Renganar, set up about fifteen years ago, has been vacated, and withdrawals are under way at Metapal, Jaram and Badegudra.
More than 65,000 central paramilitary personnel are deployed across the seven Bastar districts.
The Dantewada district collector is Devesh Kumar Dhruv.
Vacated camps are to be converted into Seva Dera public service and skill centres or handed over to the local police after security assessments.
The Union Home Minister had announced in May 2026 that 70 of the 196 security camps in Bastar would be turned into public service centres, the first being the Shaheed Veer Gundadhur Seva Dera at Netanar near Jagdalpur.
Camps to be converted:
70 of 196
Paramilitary strength in Bastar:
more than 65,000 across seven districts
First service centre:
Netanar, near Jagdalpur
Why it matters for exams: The shift from security camps to service delivery in Bastar is the live internal security question on Chhattisgarh.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSC
In plain words
CoBRA Commando Battalion for Resolute Action — A specialised jungle-warfare force raised within the Central Reserve Police Force.
Seva Dera Shaheed Veer Gundadhur Seva Dera — The name given to Bastar security camps converted into centres that deliver government services and skill training.
Gundadhur Veer Gundadhur — A tribal leader of Bastar remembered for the Bhumkal uprising of 1910 against colonial rule.
4 October 2026
The Siang Indigenous Farmers' Forum (SIFF) declined the invitation of Chief Minister Pema Khandu for a meeting at Pasighat on 5 October. The decision was taken at a meeting held on Sunday in Geku in the presence of villagers. The forum suggested holding the meeting after 11 October. Its spokesperson Tagori Mize said the forum would hold internal deliberations from 4 to 11 October on the project and the proposed PFR survey before arriving at a collective stand. The Siang Upper Multipurpose Project is at the Pre-Feasibility Report stage.
Invited meeting:
5 October, Pasighat
Date suggested by SIFF:
after 11 October
Internal deliberations:
4 to 11 October
Why it matters for exams: SIFF is the grassroots body of the Adi-led opposition on the Siang; knowing who the parties are helps with questions on the project.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSC
In plain words
SIFF Siang Indigenous Farmers' Forum — The forum of farmers in the Siang valley that opposes the Siang Upper Multipurpose Project.
4 October 2026
Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (PTI) launched a mass march on 4 October 2026 after talks with the government failed over the weekend.
It is led by Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Chief Minister Sohail Afridi and starts at Lakki Marwat.
The route is due to end at Khairabad, about 80 km west of Islamabad, on 8 October.
The marchers demand the release of jailed former Prime Minister Imran Khan, who has been in prison since August 2023.
Interior Minister Mohsin Naqvi has said the government will act against anyone who defies court orders against occupying public roads.
March led by:
Sohail Afridi, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Chief Minister
Start and end:
Lakki Marwat to Khairabad
Distance of Khairabad from Islamabad:
80 km west
Why it matters for exams: Shows how a province's elected government and the opposition clash with the federal government in a neighbouring country.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
PTI Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf — The party founded by Imran Khan; it governs Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province.
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province of north-west Pakistan — Pakistan's north-western province, whose capital is Peshawar.