5 October 2026
The United Nations Human Rights Council adopted a resolution on Sudan by 28 votes in favour, 10 against and 9 abstentions in the 47-member Council.
The text demands an immediate and complete ceasefire by all parties without preconditions, independent monitoring mechanisms, the restoration of basic infrastructure and a negotiated and peaceful resolution of the conflict.
It also extends the mandate of the independent international fact-finding mission for Sudan by one more year.
The resolution condemns violations by both the Sudanese Armed Forces and the Rapid Support Forces, including indiscriminate attacks on civilians and aerial bombardment affecting schools and hospitals.
Brazil, Britain, France, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Mexico and South Africa were among those voting in favour, while China, Cuba, Egypt, Indonesia, Iraq, Pakistan and Qatar voted against.
Ethiopia, India and Thailand were among the countries that abstained.
Vote:
28 in favour, 10 against, 9 abstentions
Council membership:
47
Fact-finding mission mandate:
extended by one year
Why it matters for exams: The Human Rights Council's size, its voting arithmetic and its fact-finding mechanisms are standard questions on UN human rights machinery.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Human Rights Council United Nations Human Rights Council — A body of 47 States elected by the General Assembly to promote and protect human rights; it meets in Geneva.
Fact-finding mission Independent international fact-finding mission — An investigative body set up by the Human Rights Council to establish the facts of alleged violations; it is not a court.
Rapid Support Forces Rapid Support Forces (RSF) — A Sudanese paramilitary force that has been fighting the Sudanese Armed Forces since 2023.
2 October 2026
The FAO Food Price Index averaged 136.0 points in September 2026, up 2.0 points or 1.5 per cent from its revised August level, the Food and Agriculture Organization reported.
The index stood 7.4 points (5.8 per cent) higher than a year earlier but remained 24.3 points (15.1 per cent) below its peak of March 2022.
The price indices for cereals, vegetable oils and sugar all increased from the previous month, while the meat and dairy price indices both declined.
The cereal price index averaged 122.8 points, up 5.1 per cent, with world wheat prices up 6.3 per cent to their highest level since August 2023, largely because of logistical constraints in the Black Sea region, and maize up 5.6 per cent to a more than three-year high.
The sugar price index averaged 114.0 points, up 6.1 per cent and its highest since April 2025, on prospects of tighter supplies in 2026/27 from the European Union, Thailand, India and Brazil.
The vegetable oil index averaged 198.6 points, led by palm oil, while the meat index fell to 127.9 points and the dairy index to 119.1 points.
FAO Food Price Index, September 2026:
136.0 points
Change from August:
up 2.0 points (1.5 percent)
Below the March 2022 peak:
24.3 points (15.1 percent)
Sugar price index:
114.0 points
Why it matters for exams: The FAO Food Price Index is a standard index question, and its monthly reading is asked with the base period and the five commodity groups.
Kerala PSCUPSCBank
In plain words
FAO Food Price Index FAO Food Price Index (FFPI) — A monthly measure of the change in international prices of a basket of food commodities, built as the average of five commodity group indices weighted by export shares.
2 October 2026
A stunningly well-preserved fossil of a previously undescribed feathered dinosaur from China adds to the evidence that birds and their closest relatives evolved the ability to fly several times rather than through a single lineage, Nature reported.
The specimen is 57 centimetres long and is a microraptorine that lived in what is now Liaoning province between 145 million and 100 million years ago. It was found by a local farmer and described by a team of researchers from China, Italy and Slovakia.
The fossil preserves traces of feathers on the fore and hind limbs and at the end of the tail, and the animal is estimated to have been about three years old when it died.
Microraptorines are small meat-eating dinosaurs weighing around one kilogram that form the clade Microraptorinae, close relatives of the bird clade Avialae.
Comparing flight-related adaptations, the researchers found that 30 per cent of the 194 such adaptations identified in microraptorines also evolved in Avialae, including wing feathers, hook-shaped toe bones and a forearm bone longer than the upper arm.
The adaptations did not develop in the same order in the two groups, so they could not be considered the expression of a shared developmental regime.
Length of specimen:
57 centimetres
Age of the rocks:
145 million to 100 million years
Flight-related adaptations identified:
194, of which 30 percent also evolved in Avialae
Why it matters for exams: Convergent evolution, the Liaoning fossil beds and the bird-dinosaur link are standard biology and science questions.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSC
In plain words
Microraptorinae Microraptorinae — A clade of small feathered meat-eating dinosaurs, close relatives of birds, known from hundreds of specimens.
Avialae Avialae — The clade of the tree of life that contains birds and their closest flying ancestors.
Clade Clade — A group made up of an ancestor and all of its descendants.
1 October 2026
The strengthening El Nino is set to affect temperature, rainfall and tropical cyclone patterns across the South-West Indian Ocean region, the World Meteorological Organization said, publishing the outlook of the region's Climate Outlook Forum.
The outlook covers October to December 2026 and January to March 2027, and the forum urged governments and communities to prepare for multiple hazards rather than a single impact scenario.
It forecasts drier conditions and increased drought risk across the southern part of the region, particularly South Africa, southern and central Mozambique, Malawi and south-western Madagascar.
Wetter conditions and increased flood risk are expected across parts of the north, particularly Tanzania, northern Malawi, Seychelles and parts of the Mascarene Islands.
Above-normal temperatures are expected across the entire region, with a substantially increased likelihood of exceptionally high temperatures, while tropical cyclone activity for the basin overall is forecast to be below normal with tracks shifting southward.
The fifteenth session of the forum was hosted by the Seychelles Meteorological Agency from 15 to 17 September and also factored in the Indian Ocean Dipole, which has been moving from a neutral state towards a positive phase.
Outlook period:
October-December 2026 and January-March 2027
Host:
Seychelles Meteorological Agency, 15-17 September
Cyclone activity for the basin:
below normal, tracks shifting southward
Why it matters for exams: The Indian Ocean Dipole, the Mascarene Islands and El Nino's effect on cyclone tracks are frequently examined physical geography topics.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Indian Ocean Dipole Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) — An oscillation of sea surface temperatures between the western and eastern tropical Indian Ocean that influences rainfall around the basin.
Mascarene Islands Mascarene Islands — The island group east of Madagascar comprising Mauritius, Reunion and Rodrigues.
Climate Outlook Forum Regional Climate Outlook Forum — A regional meeting of national meteorological services that agrees a consensus seasonal forecast for its region.
Background
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea was opened for signature on 10 December 1982 at Montego Bay, Jamaica, after more than 14 years of work involving more than 150 countries.
It entered into force in accordance with its article 308 on 16 November 1994, twelve months after the sixtieth instrument of ratification or accession was deposited.
The Convention comprises 320 articles and nine annexes covering delimitation, environmental control, marine scientific research, economic activities, transfer of technology and dispute settlement.
A coastal State may establish the breadth of its territorial sea up to a limit not to exceed 12 nautical miles, and foreign vessels enjoy innocent passage through those waters.
Coastal States have sovereign rights in a 200-nautical mile exclusive economic zone over natural resources and certain economic activities, while all other States keep freedom of navigation and overflight there.
Disputes may go to the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, to the International Court of Justice or to arbitration, and the Tribunal has exclusive jurisdiction over deep seabed mining disputes.
Opened for signature:
10 December 1982, Montego Bay, Jamaica
Entry into force:
16 November 1994
Articles and annexes:
320 articles and nine annexes
Territorial sea limit:
not to exceed 12 nautical miles
Exclusive economic zone:
200 nautical miles
Why it matters for exams: The 12-nautical mile territorial sea and the 200-nautical mile exclusive economic zone are standard maritime-law questions in Kerala PSC and UPSC papers.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone — A 200-nautical mile belt where the coastal State has sovereign rights over natural resources.
Innocent passage Right of innocent passage — Foreign vessels may pass through a coastal State's territorial sea without threatening its peace or security.
ITLOS International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea — The court set up by the Convention; it alone can hear deep seabed mining disputes.
Background
CERN describes its work as uncovering what the universe is made of and how it works, by providing a unique range of particle accelerator facilities to researchers.
The Laboratory was established in 1954 and has become a prime example of international collaboration.
It is governed by 25 Member States together with 11 Associated Member States.
Its postal address is at 1211 Geneva 23 in Switzerland.
Among its stated aims are using its flagship accelerator, the LHC, to its maximum potential during the high-luminosity phase, and preparing for a post-LHC high-energy accelerator project.
Its facilities include the CERN accelerator complex, the HiLumi LHC upgrade and the Worldwide LHC Computing Grid.
Established:
1954
Member States:
25
Associated Member States:
11
Address:
1211 Geneva 23
Why it matters for exams: CERN's founding year, its Geneva base and its 25 Member States are recurring general-science and international-organisation questions.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
LHC Large Hadron Collider — CERN's flagship accelerator, now being used in its high-luminosity phase.
WLCG Worldwide LHC Computing Grid — The distributed computing system that handles LHC experiment data.
Background
Established in 1874, the Universal Postal Union has its headquarters in the Swiss capital Berne and is the second oldest international organization worldwide.
With its 192 member countries, it is the primary forum for cooperation between postal sector players and helps ensure a truly universal network of up-to-date products and services.
Any non-member country of the United Nations may become a UPU member provided its request is approved by at least two-thirds of the member countries of the UPU.
Congress is the supreme authority of the Union and meets every four years.
The Council of Administration ensures the continuity of the UPU's work between Congresses, supervises its activities and studies regulatory, administrative, legislative and legal issues.
The Postal Operations Council is the technical and operational mind of the UPU and consists of 48 member countries, elected during Congress.
Established:
1874
Headquarters:
Berne, Switzerland
Member countries:
192
Congress:
supreme authority, meets every four years
Postal Operations Council:
48 member countries
Why it matters for exams: The founding year, the Berne headquarters, 192 members and the four-yearly Congress are the standard examination points on the Universal Postal Union.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
UPU Universal Postal Union — The forum for cooperation between postal sector players, founded in 1874.
POC Postal Operations Council — The UPU's technical and operational body of 48 member countries.
Background
The International Telecommunication Union is the United Nations specialized agency for information and communication technologies.
Its membership is made up of 194 Member States and more than 1000 companies, universities and international and regional organizations.
It is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, and has regional offices on every continent.
The Union is the oldest agency in the UN family, connecting people for over 160 years.
It was established in 1865 to manage the first international telegraph networks, and its mandate has since expanded to voice telephony, radiocommunications, communications satellites and, most recently, artificial intelligence and the metaverse.
Its Member States have set two strategic goals for the Union for 2024 to 2027: universal connectivity and sustainable digital transformation.
ITU's work is organised in the Radiocommunication, Standardization and Development sectors, and its top five officials were elected at the 21st Plenipotentiary Conference.
Established:
1865
Member States:
194
Other members:
more than 1000 companies, universities and international and regional organizations
Headquarters:
Geneva, Switzerland
Strategic goals 2024 to 2027:
universal connectivity and sustainable digital transformation
Why it matters for exams: Which UN agency is the oldest, and its 1865 telegraph origin and 194 Member States, are standard international-organisation questions.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
ITU International Telecommunication Union — The UN specialized agency for information and communication technologies.
Sector Member Sector Member of ITU — A company, university or organization that joins an ITU sector alongside Member States.
Background
The Bank for International Settlements states that its mission is to support central banks' pursuit of monetary and financial stability through international cooperation, and to act as a bank for central banks.
Established in 1930, the BIS is owned by 63 central banks, representing countries from around the world that together account for about 95% of world GDP.
It hosts committees engaged in standard setting and the pursuit of financial stability through what it calls the Basel Process, among them the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision.
BIS research focuses on policy issues of core interest to the central bank and financial supervisory community.
The Bank has two main buildings in Basel, the Tower headquarters on Centralbahnplatz and the Botta building on Aeschenplatz.
The Tower building is 69.5 metres high and has 24 floors, 20 above ground and four below, and the BIS opened for business there in March 1977.
Established:
1930
Owners:
63 central banks
Share of world GDP:
about 95% of world GDP
Headquarters building:
the Tower on Centralbahnplatz, Basel, 69.5 metres high, 24 floors
Why it matters for exams: The 1930 founding, the 63 owning central banks and the Basel Process are the usual examination points on the Bank for International Settlements.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
BIS Bank for International Settlements — The bank for central banks, based in Basel and established in 1930.
Basel Process The Basel Process — The BIS term for the standard setting and financial stability work of the committees it hosts.
Background
The Commonwealth is a voluntary association of 56 independent and equal countries.
It is home to 2.7 billion people and includes both advanced economies and developing countries; 33 of its members are small states, including many island nations.
Member governments have agreed on shared goals such as development, democracy and peace, and the association's values and principles are expressed in the Commonwealth Charter.
His Majesty King Charles III is Head of the Commonwealth.
The Commonwealth Secretariat is the intergovernmental organisation that supports member countries and coordinates Commonwealth activities, and the Secretary-General is its Chief Executive Officer.
The international headquarters of the Commonwealth Secretariat and the Commonwealth Foundation are at Marlborough House on Pall Mall in London.
The establishment of the Commonwealth Secretariat in 1965 emphasised the equality of all members, and member countries are also supported by a network of more than 90 intergovernmental, civil, cultural and professional organisations.
Member countries:
56 independent and equal countries
Population:
2.7 billion people
Small states among members:
33
Secretariat established:
1965
Headquarters:
Marlborough House on Pall Mall, London
Why it matters for exams: The number of Commonwealth members, the Marlborough House headquarters and the Commonwealth Charter are repeatedly asked in Kerala PSC and UPSC papers.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Commonwealth Charter Charter of the Commonwealth — The document in which the association's values and principles are expressed.
CSAT Commonwealth Secretariat Arbitral Tribunal — Resolves contractual disputes involving the Secretariat.
Background
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) provides regular assessments of the scientific basis of climate change.
The assessments cover impacts, future risks, and options for adaptation and mitigation.
It was created in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
Its objective is to give governments at all levels scientific information they can use to develop climate policies.
IPCC reports are also a key input into international climate change negotiations.
Created by:
WMO and UNEP
Year created:
1988
Why it matters for exams: Which bodies created the IPCC is a staple environment and institutions question.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Mitigation Action to reduce climate change — Mitigation and adaptation are the two kinds of response the IPCC assesses.
Background
Collective defence is NATO's most fundamental principle.
Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty says an armed attack against one NATO member shall be considered an attack against all members.
It triggers an obligation for each member to come to the assistance of the one attacked.
That assistance may or may not involve the use of armed force.
NATO invoked Article 5 for the first and only time in its history after the 9/11 terrorist attacks.
Treaty article:
Article 5
Principle:
collective defence
Times invoked:
once
Why it matters for exams: Article 5 and its link to Article 51 of the UN Charter are common defence and polity questions.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Collective defence Mutual defence among allies — An attack on one ally is treated as an attack on all.