15 October 2026
NASA says its satellites are tracking the 2026 El Nino, which the United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration estimated in October 2026 has an 83 per cent chance of being the strongest since 1950. Eastern Pacific waters were about 3 degrees Fahrenheit, or 1.7 degrees Celsius, above the long term average, in a warm band stretching from the central Pacific to the coast of South America. Local sea levels rose by as much as 1 to 1.3 feet, or 30 to 40 cm, in some areas, while levels around Indonesia and northern Australia were 6 to 8 inches, or 15 to 20 cm, lower than normal. The first clue came in January 2026 with a Kelvin wave spotted near Micronesia, and by early April those waves had reached the eastern Pacific. Josh Willis, project scientist for sea level missions at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, said Kelvin waves are like the heartbeat of El Nino. The Sentinel-6 satellites measure ocean height every ten days, and this is the first El Nino observed by the PACE mission, launched in 2024, whose data show equatorial Pacific waters turning bluer as phytoplankton thin out.
Chance of being strongest since 1950:
83 per cent
Eastern Pacific warming:
about 3 degrees Fahrenheit (1.7 degrees Celsius) above average
Sea level rise:
1 to 1.3 feet (30 to 40 cm) in some areas
Satellites:
Sentinel-6 and PACE
Why it matters for exams: El Nino is a core geography topic and the 1950 baseline, the Kelvin wave mechanism and the satellites that measure it are all examinable.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Kelvin wave Oceanic Kelvin wave — A slow eastward moving wave along the equator that carries warm water towards South America.
PACE Plankton, Aerosol, Cloud, ocean Ecosystem — A NASA mission launched in 2024 that measures ocean colour in many wavelengths.
15 October 2026
NASA says analysis of the Artemis II heat shield has confirmed its performance, with cracking and char loss reduced by a factor of ten relative to Artemis I. Engineers found nine char loss spots on the Artemis II shield against 103 on Artemis I. The shield is made of 186 blocks of Avcoat, an ablative material, and the reentry trajectory was changed after Artemis I to shorten the maximum downrange distance and limit time in the temperature range linked to the earlier char loss. Peak reentry speed reached 39 times the speed of sound and external temperatures exceeded 4,000 degrees Fahrenheit, while cabin temperature stayed in the mid seventies Fahrenheit. The four astronauts flew around the Moon and splashed down on 10 April 2026 in the Pacific Ocean off San Diego, landing 0.59 miles from the predicted site. The backshell of 1,300 ceramic tiles performed as expected, and the shield has been moved to NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center for sample extraction and internal X-ray scans.
Char loss spots:
9 on Artemis II against 103 on Artemis I
Heat shield:
186 blocks of Avcoat
Peak reentry speed:
39 times the speed of sound
Splashdown:
10 April 2026, Pacific Ocean off San Diego
Why it matters for exams: Artemis is the reference crewed lunar programme in current affairs, and the heat shield material and splashdown date are the kind of detail asked.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Avcoat Avcoat — An ablative heat shield material that chars and erodes away to carry heat off a spacecraft.
Ablative Ablative material — A material designed to be consumed in use, taking heat with it.
16 October 2026
NASA has published a Hubble Space Telescope image of NGC 1827, an edge-on intermediate spiral galaxy roughly 37 million light-years away in the constellation Columba, the Dove. The image was taken with Hubble's Advanced Camera for Surveys. It forms part of a survey of 260 satellite galaxies around 22 host galaxies similar to the Milky Way, all within about 32 million light-years of Earth. Hubble has observed 111 of those satellites so far, and the remaining 149 will take one orbit each. The disk shows bright blue regions with dark dust lanes where new stars are likely forming. The survey's low-mass galaxies can help test cosmological models on small scales, where the models have had trouble matching observations.
Galaxy:
NGC 1827, edge-on intermediate spiral
Constellation:
Columba, the Dove
Distance:
roughly 37 million light-years
Survey:
260 satellite galaxies around 22 Milky Way-like hosts; 111 observed so far
Why it matters for exams: Named galaxies, their constellations and distances are standard astronomy questions, and the survey design shows why satellite galaxies matter to cosmology.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Edge-on galaxy Edge-on galaxy — A disk galaxy seen from the side, so its dust lanes stand out.
Satellite galaxy Satellite galaxy — A smaller galaxy bound in orbit around a larger host galaxy.
17 October 2026
The annual meetings of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank Group in Bangkok, Thailand wrapped up on 17 October 2026, attended by more than 15,000 policymakers from 191 countries. Managing Director Kristalina Georgieva said the discussions showed both optimism and worry, citing artificial intelligence, inflation, high debt, wars and climate risks. She said higher global interest rates mean low-income countries now spend 8 to 14 per cent of revenue on debt repayments, called inflation a tax on the poor, and said the Fund has a responsibility to help countries restructure debt when needed. Mohammed Al-Jadaan, the Saudi finance minister who chairs the International Monetary and Financial Committee, warned that escalating conflicts and trade tensions could disrupt trade routes and push up commodity prices. Georgieva said the Fund plans to back Iraq firmly with a requested loan programme and that talks with Lebanon are progressing. A day earlier, speaking at the same meetings, she said the risks of artificial intelligence may exceed the opportunities if there are no safeguards.
Venue and close:
Bangkok, Thailand, 17 October 2026
Attendance:
more than 15,000 policymakers from 191 countries
Debt service in low-income countries:
8 to 14 per cent of revenue
IMFC chair:
Mohammed Al-Jadaan, Saudi finance minister
Why it matters for exams: The venue of the annual meetings, the IMF's Managing Director and the chair of the IMFC are recurring economy questions.
Kerala PSCUPSCBank
In plain words
IMFC International Monetary and Financial Committee — The ministerial committee that advises the IMF's Board of Governors.
Debt service Debt service — The payments of interest and principal a government makes on its borrowings.
17 October 2026
Two missiles struck an area of Aden airport in Yemen that hosts a military unit aligned with the internationally recognised government, police said. No casualties were reported. Police attributed the attack to the Houthi movement, and no group claimed responsibility. It was the second such attack on the airport in less than a week, coming a day after a strike on a palace complex in Aden. Aden has been the seat of the internationally recognised government of Yemen since 2015. Yemen's government separately said two missiles had been fired at Aden airport.
Target:
Military area of Aden airport
Missiles:
Two
Casualties:
None reported
Seat of government since:
Aden, since 2015
Why it matters for exams: Yemen's divided capital arrangement, with Aden as the seat of the recognised government since 2015, is a standard West Asia geography and polity fact.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Aden Aden — The southern Yemeni port city that has served as the seat of the internationally recognised government since 2015.
Background
The Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) is the implementing body for the Chemical Weapons Convention, which entered into force on 29 April 1997.
The OPCW has 193 Member States.
The Convention opened for signature in Paris on 13 January 1993, and 130 nations signed it within the first two days.
Entry into force came 180 days after Hungary became the 65th state to ratify, on 31 October 1996.
The Organisation works through three organs: the Conference of the States Parties, the Executive Council and the Technical Secretariat.
The Executive Council consists of 41 Member States that are elected by the Conference of the States Parties and rotate every two years.
The OPCW records that 100% of the chemical weapons stockpiles declared by possessor States have been verifiably destroyed, and that 98% of the global population live under the protection of the Convention.
The 2013 Nobel Prize for Peace was awarded to the Organisation on 10 December 2013.
Entry into force:
29 April 1997
Member States:
193
Executive Council:
41 Member States
Opened for signature:
13 January 1993, Paris
Why it matters for exams: The three organs of the OPCW, the size of its Executive Council and the entry into force of the Chemical Weapons Convention are standard disarmament questions.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
OPCW Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons — The body that implements the Chemical Weapons Convention.
CWC Chemical Weapons Convention — The treaty banning the development, production, stockpiling and use of chemical weapons.
Background
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) is the United Nations specialized agency for information and communication technologies (ICTs).
It is made up of a membership of 194 Member States and more than 1000 companies, universities and international and regional organizations.
It is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, with regional offices on every continent.
ITU is the oldest agency in the UN family, connecting people for over 160 years.
It was established in 1865 to manage the first international telegraph networks, and its mandate later grew to cover voice telephony, radiocommunications and communications satellites.
Its work is organised in three sectors: Radiocommunication, Standardization and Development.
ITU Member States elected the Organization's top five officials during the 21st Plenipotentiary Conference.
Member States have set two strategic goals for the Union for 2024 to 2027: universal connectivity and sustainable digital transformation.
Established:
1865
Member States:
194
Headquarters:
Geneva, Switzerland
Sectors:
Radiocommunication, Standardization, Development
Why it matters for exams: Candidates are regularly asked which United Nations agency is the oldest and which body allots radio spectrum between countries.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSC
In plain words
ITU International Telecommunication Union — The UN specialized agency for information and communication technologies.
Background
The Universal Postal Union (UPU) is a United Nations specialized agency and the postal sector's primary forum for international cooperation.
Established in 1874, the UPU has its headquarters in the Swiss capital Berne and is the second oldest international organization worldwide.
It has 192 member countries.
Any non-member country of the United Nations may become a UPU member provided that its request is approved by at least two-thirds of the member countries of the UPU.
Congress is the supreme authority of the UPU and meets every four years.
The Council of Administration ensures the continuity of the UPU's work between Congresses, supervises its activities and studies regulatory, administrative, legislative and legal issues.
The Postal Operations Council is the technical and operational mind of the UPU and consists of 48 member countries, elected during Congress.
The UPU recognises high achievers in its Integrated Index for Postal Development at a World Post Day ceremony at its Berne headquarters.
Established:
1874
Headquarters:
Berne, Switzerland
Member countries:
192
Postal Operations Council:
48 member countries
Why it matters for exams: The year of establishment, the headquarters and the four-yearly Congress of the Universal Postal Union are frequently asked in general awareness papers.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSC
In plain words
UPU Universal Postal Union — The UN specialized agency for cooperation between postal services.
Background
The New Development Bank (NDB) is a multilateral development bank established by Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa with the purpose of mobilising resources for infrastructure and sustainable development projects in emerging markets and developing countries.
The Agreement for establishing the NDB was signed during the sixth BRICS Summit in Fortaleza by the leaders.
The inaugural meeting of the NDB Board of Governors was held on 7 July 2015.
The bank later moved to its permanent headquarters in Shanghai.
Its membership is open to members of the United Nations, in accordance with its Articles of Agreement, and is open to borrowing and non-borrowing members.
In 2021 the Board of Governors approved the admission of Bangladesh, UAE, Egypt and Uruguay, which began the bank's expansion as a global multilateral institution.
Algeria and then Uzbekistan were admitted after that, and the bank's members list shows Bangladesh, the United Arab Emirates, Egypt, Algeria and Uzbekistan as new member countries alongside the five founders.
Uruguay, Colombia, Ethiopia, Angola, Zimbabwe and Belarus are listed as prospective members: the Board of Governors has admitted them, but each officially becomes a member country only once it deposits its instrument of accession.
The bank earmarked a total of USD 10 billion as a response to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Established:
2015
Founding members:
Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa
Headquarters:
Shanghai
Establishing agreement signed at:
Sixth BRICS Summit, Fortaleza
Why it matters for exams: Examiners ask where the New Development Bank is headquartered, at which summit it was agreed and whether non-founder countries can join.
Kerala PSCUPSCBank
In plain words
NDB New Development Bank — A multilateral development bank set up by the five BRICS countries.
Background
The European Union's institutional set-up consists of 7 European institutions, 9 EU bodies and over 30 decentralised agencies, together with 4 interinstitutional services that support the institutions.
There are 4 main decision-making institutions which lead the EU's administration: the European Parliament, the European Council, the Council of the European Union and the European Commission.
Their work is complemented by 3 further institutions: the Court of Justice of the European Union at Luxembourg, the European Central Bank at Frankfurt and the European Court of Auditors at Luxembourg.
The European Parliament represents the citizens of EU countries and is directly elected by them; it takes decisions on European laws jointly with the Council of the European Union and approves the EU budget.
The European Council is chaired by a president who is elected for a 2.5-year term, renewable once, and it does not adopt laws except for possible EU Treaty amendments.
The European Commission uses its right of initiative to put forward proposals for new laws, which the Parliament and the Council adopt.
The powers, responsibilities and procedures of the institutions are laid down in the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (1957) and the Treaty on European Union (1992), with amendments introduced by the Lisbon Treaty (2007).
Around 60,000 EU civil servants and other staff serve the 450 million Europeans.
Institutions:
7
EU bodies:
9
European Council president's term:
2.5 years, renewable once
Staff:
Around 60,000
Why it matters for exams: The difference between the European Council and the Council of the European Union, and which institution proposes laws, are the usual traps in this topic.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
CJEU Court of Justice of the European Union — The institution that ensures EU law is followed and the Treaties are correctly interpreted.
Background
Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty states that an armed attack against one NATO member shall be considered an attack against all members, and triggers an obligation for each member to come to its assistance.
This assistance may or may not involve the use of armed force, and can include any action that Allies deem necessary to restore and maintain the security of the North Atlantic area.
On 4 April 1949, 12 countries from Europe and North America came together in Washington, D.C. to sign the North Atlantic Treaty, a founding treaty of only 14 articles and just over 1,000 words.
Article 5 is consistent with Article 51 of the United Nations Charter, which recognises the inherent right of individual or collective self-defence; within NATO this right becomes a mutual assistance obligation.
NATO invoked Article 5 for the first and only time in its history after the 9/11 terrorist attacks against the United States in 2001.
Article 6 of the Treaty imposes geographic limits, primarily confining the mutual assistance obligation to the North Atlantic area north of the Tropic of Cancer.
Article 4 provides for consultations between Allies whenever an Ally's territorial integrity, political independence or security is threatened, and such consultations are not a necessary precondition for action under Article 5.
The North Atlantic Council, NATO's principal political decision-making body, is convened immediately to discuss whether an attack is regarded as covered by Article 5.
Treaty signed:
4 April 1949, Washington, D.C.
Original signatories:
12 countries
Articles in the Treaty:
14
Times Article 5 invoked:
Once
Why it matters for exams: Article 5 and Article 4 are regularly confused, and the single invocation of the collective defence clause is a stock factual question.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
NAC North Atlantic Council — NATO's principal political decision-making body, where all Allies are represented.
Background
The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants was adopted by the Conference of Plenipotentiaries on 22 May 2001 in Stockholm, Sweden, and entered into force on 17 May 2004.
It is a global treaty to protect human health and the environment from chemicals that remain intact in the environment for long periods, become widely distributed geographically, accumulate in the fatty tissue of humans and wildlife, and have harmful impacts.
As set out in Article 1, the objective of the Convention is to protect human health and the environment from persistent organic pollutants.
Parties must prohibit and/or eliminate the production and use, as well as the import and export, of the intentionally produced pollutants listed in Annex A.
They must restrict the production and use, import and export of the intentionally produced pollutants listed in Annex B.
They must reduce or eliminate releases from unintentionally produced pollutants listed in Annex C.
Annex A allows the registration of specific exemptions, bearing in mind that special rules apply to PCBs, and Annex B allows the registration of acceptable purposes as well as of specific exemptions.
Its secretariat is part of the shared Secretariat of the Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm Conventions.
Adopted:
22 May 2001, Stockholm
Entered into force:
17 May 2004
Annexes listing pollutants:
Annex A, Annex B, Annex C
Why it matters for exams: Which annex carries which obligation, and the difference between the Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm conventions, are the usual examination points.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
POPs Persistent Organic Pollutants — Chemicals that persist in the environment, travel long distances and build up in fatty tissue.