18 October 2026
President Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva, 80, who is seeking a fourth term, and Liberal Party candidate Flavio Bolsonaro, 45, a right-wing senator, held their first debate on 18 October 2026 in Sao Paulo, a week before Brazil's presidential run-off. Both had declined earlier debate invitations. In the first round on 4 October 2026, Flavio Bolsonaro took 47 per cent to Lula's 45 per cent. About 33 million voters, roughly one in five of those eligible, did not vote in the first round. The run-off is on 25 October 2026 and a second debate was scheduled for 23 October. During the debate Flavio Bolsonaro said his father's pandemic record was not among that government's best results and apologised for it. Jair Bolsonaro is under house arrest while serving a 27-year sentence linked to efforts to overturn the 2022 election.
First round:
4 October 2026
First round result:
Flavio Bolsonaro 47%, Lula 45%
Run-off:
25 October 2026
First debate:
18 October 2026, Sao Paulo
Why it matters for exams: Brazil's two-round presidential system and the first-round margin are exactly the kind of election facts asked about major democracies.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Run-off Second round of voting — A further round held when no candidate wins an absolute majority in the first round.
19 October 2026
The UN Biodiversity Conference opened in the Armenian capital Yerevan, where governments will assess progress on the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework adopted four years earlier. Astrid Schomaker, Executive Secretary of the UN Convention on Biological Diversity, said 196 countries made commitments in 2022 and that billions of people whose lives are being upended by biodiversity loss depend on progress in the next two weeks. The meeting, known as COP17, will carry out the very first global review of collective progress under the framework, with countries presenting national reports and updated national biodiversity strategies and action plans. The framework's best known ambition is the 30 by 30 target of conserving 30 per cent of land and sea by 2030. Armenia's Permanent Representative to the United Nations, Paruyr Hovhannisyan, said the aim is to turn commitments into measurable progress on the ground. Schomaker also called for greater engagement from Indigenous Peoples and local communities, women, youth, cities, businesses and financial institutions.
Venue:
Yerevan, Armenia
Meeting:
COP17
Countries that committed in 2022:
196
Headline target:
30 by 30
Why it matters for exams: The venue, the COP number, the 196 countries and the 30 by 30 target are the facts asked about biodiversity conferences.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity — The treaty whose Conference of Parties adopts global biodiversity goals and reviews how countries meet them.
NBSAP National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan — The country-level plan each party prepares to carry out its biodiversity commitments.
19 October 2026
The United Nations told the Security Council that armed groups in Haiti are adapting to intensified security operations, stepping up reprisals against civilians and extending their reach into rural areas. The briefing came two weeks after presidential and legislative elections planned for 13 December were postponed indefinitely. Carlos Ruiz Massieu, the UN's senior official in the country, cautioned against setting new dates without a realistic assessment of whether a vote can be held. Between July and early October, 1,123 Haitians were killed and 440 injured in gang-related violence, and 689 women and girls were reported raped by gang members in July and August. Security force operations accounted for 52 per cent of Haitians killed or wounded since the beginning of July, or 808 people, including 148 not associated with gangs. An attack on 23 and 24 August at Kenscoff, southeast of Port-au-Prince, killed at least 47 people, wounded 22 and saw 52 taken hostage. As of 12 October the Security Council-authorised Gang Suppression Force had 1,563 uniformed members against the 5,550 authorised, and has set up a base in the Artibonite region.
Killed July to early October:
1,123
Gang Suppression Force strength:
1,563 of 5,550 authorised
Postponed election date:
13 December
Kenscoff attack toll:
At least 47 killed
Why it matters for exams: The Gang Suppression Force, its authorised strength and the postponed Haitian elections are current Security Council items.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
GSF Gang Suppression Force — The force authorised by the UN Security Council to help Haitian authorities counter armed gangs, logistically supported by the United Nations.
19 October 2026
The United Nations condemned a wave of drone strikes across Sudan that killed and injured dozens. UN Spokesperson Stephane Dujarric said the organisation is alarmed by continued deadly drone strikes that are killing civilians, including children, and disrupting essential services. On Monday alone, strikes injured at least 19 people in a busy market in Abyei and hit several locations in the capital Khartoum, including an area near the airport; one civilian was killed and some flights were cancelled. Over the weekend, drone attacks killed at least 19 people, including 10 children, across West Darfur, South Darfur and North Kordofan states. The war between the Sudanese Armed Forces and the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces began in April 2023, and 20 million people now face acute hunger with a rising risk of famine in parts of Darfur and Greater Kordofan. Rosemary DiCarlo, Under-Secretary-General for Political and Peacebuilding Affairs, urged external actors to stop fuelling the violence. Twenty-five Sudanese Red Crescent volunteers have been killed on duty since the conflict began, and Sudan's humanitarian response plan is just over 43 per cent funded.
Facing acute hunger:
20 million people
Killed over the weekend:
At least 19, including 10 children
Red Crescent volunteers killed:
25
Response plan funding:
Just over 43 per cent
Why it matters for exams: The two warring forces in Sudan, the 2023 start of the war and the famine-risk regions are frequently tested geography and current affairs.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
RSF Rapid Support Forces — The Sudanese paramilitary force fighting the Sudanese Armed Forces since April 2023.
19 October 2026
The World Food Programme said funding shortages have forced it to cut food assistance in the Gaza Strip by roughly one third, affecting some 500,000 people as winter approaches. The agency is supporting 1.1 million of the most vulnerable people this month, down from 1.6 million in September. Rations have been halved, so families will receive one food parcel instead of two and a smaller bag of wheat flour. The value of cash assistance to 75,000 families has been reduced, and daily hot meals across Gaza will drop from 250,000 to 150,000. Families in hard to reach areas, including near the yellow line of Israeli military control, will receive a hot meal every other day instead of daily. The agency continues to support bakeries covering a third of Gaza's bread needs, nutrition assistance to 300,000 women and children and school snacks for 200,000 students. About 67 per cent of Gazans, an estimated 1.4 million people, face acute food insecurity at crisis levels or worse, down from 77 per cent at the end of 2025, and more than 80 per cent of the population is unemployed. The agency says it needs 450 million dollars to maintain operations in Gaza and the West Bank through March.
People supported this month:
1.1 million, down from 1.6 million
Daily hot meals:
From 250,000 to 150,000
Acute food insecurity:
About 67 per cent of Gazans
Funding needed:
450 million dollars
Why it matters for exams: The World Food Programme's caseload figures and the crisis-level food insecurity share are typical report-based questions.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
WFP World Food Programme — The United Nations agency that provides food assistance in emergencies and works on food security.
19 October 2026
United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights Volker Turk told the UN-hosted Committee on World Food Security in Rome that more than a quarter of humanity struggles to get enough food even though the world produces enough for everyone. He said global food supply now exceeds 3,000 calories per person per day, a historic high, yet hunger reduction has not kept pace. Households alone throw away more than one billion meals every day, just one per cent of the world's farms operate more than 70 per cent of global farmland, and conflict is driving acute hunger in 12 of the 13 current hunger hotspots. He called for a human rights economy built on social protection, fair taxation and agricultural policies that reduce poverty, with equitable access to land, water and seeds. Addressing the Committee for the first time as Special Rapporteur on the right to food, Sofia Monsalve Suarez said chronic hunger declined in 2025 but acute hunger has risen steadily since 2016. She said 1.4 million people in six countries face catastrophic conditions, nine times more than in 2016, and 266 million people face acute hunger every day, including in Sudan, South Sudan, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Yemen and Gaza.
Global food supply:
Over 3,000 calories per person per day
Farmland concentration:
1 per cent of farms operate over 70 per cent of farmland
Hunger hotspots driven by conflict:
12 of 13
Catastrophic conditions:
1.4 million people in six countries
Why it matters for exams: The Committee on World Food Security, the right-to-food Special Rapporteur and the hunger hotspot figures are standard report questions.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
CFS Committee on World Food Security — The UN-hosted intergovernmental platform in Rome that reviews and follows up on food security and nutrition policy.
Special Rapporteur Special Rapporteur — An independent expert appointed by the Human Rights Council to report on a specific right or country situation.
19 October 2026
The four crew members of NASA's CHAPEA Mission 2, the Crew Health and Performance Exploration Analog, completed 365 days inside a simulated Mars habitat at NASA's Johnson Space Center in Houston. The crew entered the 1,700-square-foot three-dimensionally printed habitat on 19 October 2025 and are to exit on Saturday 31 October, completing a planned 378 days. The members are mission commander Ross Elder, medical officer Ellen Ellis, science officer Matthew Montgomery and flight engineer James Spicer. During the mission their communications were delayed by up to 45 minutes each way to reproduce the lag between Earth and Mars. Post-mission evaluations and debriefs are to run for two weeks after they come out.
Days completed:
365
Planned duration:
378 days
Habitat size:
1,700 square feet
Communication delay:
Up to 45 minutes each way
Why it matters for exams: Analogue missions, the Johnson Space Center and the Earth-Mars communication delay are frequently asked space-science points.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
CHAPEA Crew Health and Performance Exploration Analog — A NASA series of year-long ground missions in which crews live in a simulated Mars habitat to study health and performance.
19 October 2026
The World Health Organization published the annual report 2025 of the WHO Academy. The Academy's online learning platform was launched in late 2024. In 2025 it registered more than 80,000 learners from 196 countries and areas, an elevenfold increase over the previous year, and more than 70 per cent of those learners came from low and middle income countries. The learning catalogue grew to more than 400 WHO courses in 24 languages. The report runs to 25 pages and carries the ISBN 978-92-4-012373-1. The publication was issued on 19 October 2026.
Learners in 2025:
More than 80,000
Countries and areas:
196
Growth over previous year:
Elevenfold
Course catalogue:
More than 400 courses in 24 languages
Why it matters for exams: The WHO Academy's reach figures and its course catalogue are usable report-and-index facts about global health capacity building.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
WHO Academy WHO Academy — The World Health Organization's learning arm, which runs an online platform of health courses for health workers and officials.
Background
Governance of the World Health Organization takes place through the World Health Assembly, which is the supreme decision-making body, and the Executive Board, which gives effect to the decisions and policies of the Health Assembly.
The Health Assembly is attended by delegations from all WHO Member States and works to an agenda prepared by the Executive Board.
Its main functions are to determine the policies of the Organization, appoint the Director-General, supervise financial policies, and review and approve the proposed programme budget.
The Executive Board is composed of 34 technically qualified members elected for three-year terms, and its annual meeting is held in January/February.
The Director-General is appointed by the Health Assembly on the nomination of the Executive Board and is the chief technical and administrative officer of the Organization.
The Constitution of WHO was adopted by the International Health Conference held in New York 1946 and entered into force on 7 April 1948.
Six regional committees meet separately, for Africa, the Americas, the Eastern Mediterranean, Europe, South-East Asia and the Western Pacific.
Supreme decision-making body:
World Health Assembly
Executive Board members:
34
Executive Board term:
Three-year terms
Constitution entered into force:
7 April 1948
Regional committees:
Six
Why it matters for exams: Every WHO review and declaration that reaches the news passes through these organs, and the examiner asks which organ does what.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
WHO World Health Organization — The United Nations specialized agency for international health work.
Background
The International Health Regulations (2005) provide an overarching legal framework that defines the rights and obligations of countries in managing public health risks, events and emergencies that have the potential to cross borders.
They are an instrument of international law that is legally binding on 197 countries, including the 194 WHO Member States.
Countries must designate or establish Responsible Authorities and must establish and maintain core capacities for surveillance and response, as well as at points of entry.
They must notify WHO of public health risks and events with actual or potential international public health implications, regardless of their origin or source, and must verify information that WHO has picked up from informal and unofficial sources.
The Regulations place an obligation on WHO itself to maintain the global public health early warning function and to coordinate international response efforts.
Further provisions cover international traffic, including health documents for international travellers and for conveyances on an international voyage.
Safeguards protect individual rights in the treatment of personal data, in informed consent and in non-discrimination in the application of health measures.
The stated purpose is to prevent, prepare for, protect against, control and provide a public health response to the international spread of disease while avoiding unnecessary interference with international traffic and trade.
Countries legally bound:
197
WHO Member States among them:
194
Instrument:
International Health Regulations (2005)
Duty on WHO:
Global public health early warning function
Why it matters for exams: Whenever an outbreak is reported across borders, these are the rules under which a country must inform WHO, and the figure of 197 countries is a standard objective question.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
IHR International Health Regulations — The binding rules on how countries report and manage health risks that can cross borders.
Background
The WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control was concluded at Geneva, 21 May 2003, and the United Nations treaty register notes that it was adopted during the 56th World Health Assembly, held from 19 to 28 May 2003 at the Palais des Nations, Geneva.
Under article 36(1) the Convention entered into force on the ninetieth day following the date of deposit of the fortieth instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval, formal confirmation or accession.
That condition was satisfied and the Convention entered into force on 27 February 2005.
It was registered on 27 February 2005 under No. 41032 and is published in United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2302, p. 166.
For a State that ratifies after entry into force, the Convention takes effect on the ninetieth day following the deposit of its own instrument.
It was opened for signature by all Members of the World Health Organization, or Members of the United Nations, and by regional economic integration organizations, first at the World Health Organization Headquarters in Geneva and afterwards at United Nations Headquarters in New York.
The register records 168 signatories and 183 parties.
Concluded at:
Geneva, 21 May 2003
Entry into force:
27 February 2005
Threshold for entry into force:
Fortieth instrument of ratification
Registration number:
41032
Parties:
183
Why it matters for exams: This is the only treaty negotiated under the health assembly route that examiners regularly set, and the fortieth-ratification threshold is the detail they test.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
FCTC Framework Convention on Tobacco Control — The treaty through which countries agree on common measures to reduce tobacco use.
Instrument of ratification Instrument of ratification — The formal document a State deposits to show it is bound by a treaty.
Background
The Paris Agreement was concluded at Paris, 12 December 2015, having been adopted at the twenty-first session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, held in Paris from 30 November to 13 December 2015.
Article 21(1) provided that the Agreement enters into force on the thirtieth day after the date on which at least 55 Parties to the Convention, accounting in total for at least an estimated 55 per cent of the total global greenhouse gas emissions, have deposited their instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession.
That double threshold was met, and the Agreement entered into force on 4 November 2016; it was registered the same day under No. 54113.
Under article 20 it was open for signature at United Nations Headquarters in New York from 22 April 2016 until 21 April 2017, by States and by regional economic integration organizations that are Parties to the Framework Convention.
The United Nations describes it as a legally binding international treaty whose long-term goals include holding the global temperature increase to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels and pursuing efforts to limit it to 1.5°C.
Every five years each country is expected to submit an updated national climate action plan, known as a Nationally Determined Contribution, in which it sets out how it will cut emissions and build resilience.
The first global stocktake of collective progress was carried out in 2023.
Concluded at:
Paris, 12 December 2015
Entry into force:
4 November 2016
Threshold:
55 Parties and 55 per cent of emissions
Registration number:
54113
Pledge cycle:
Every five years
Why it matters for exams: The 55-and-55 threshold and the five-year contribution cycle are the two details most often set on the Paris Agreement.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
NDC Nationally Determined Contribution — The national climate action plan each country updates and submits under the Paris Agreement.
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change — The parent convention under which the Paris Agreement was negotiated.