23 October 2026
Environmental DNA sampling has begun in the Crozet Archipelago, part of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands. Marine organisms shed traces of DNA into the water through waste, mucus and shed cells, and analysing those traces shows which species are present in an area from a water sample alone, without capturing or disturbing a single animal. The work is part of eDNA Expeditions, a citizen science initiative that measures marine biodiversity and the impacts of climate change at UNESCO marine World Heritage sites. Sampling has taken place at twenty-one sites since 2018. The first phase in 2022 covered four sites and detected 181 species and 418 taxa, the higher taxa count reflecting detections that could not be identified down to species level. In 2026 the French Southern and Antarctic Lands administration is launching a second phase covering seven sites, including the original four, so that changes in biodiversity can be tracked over time. The Government of France is listed as a partner. Ships resupply the remote archipelagos only about three times a year. The first Crozet samples are being collected this month, while the United Nations Biodiversity Conference meets at Yerevan in Armenia.
Sites sampled since 2018:
Twenty-one
First phase findings:
181 species and 418 taxa at four sites
Second phase sites:
Seven
Why it matters for exams: What DNA stands for, which country holds the French Southern and Antarctic Lands and which UNESCO programme lists World Heritage sites are all examinable.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
eDNA Environmental DNA — Genetic material shed by organisms into water, soil or air, used to detect species.
25 October 2026
Andy Burnham, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, told The Sunday Times that he wants to discuss Britain returning to the European Union's freedom of movement rules for workers. That rule was a key issue in the 2016 referendum on leaving the European Union. Burnham said European worker immigration before departure had posed significant challenges but was perhaps a less difficult kind of immigration than the present pattern, and he called for an honest discussion on the balance of migration. He argued that freedom of movement should be considered as part of a broader reset of relations with the European Union, including data sharing on migration, and cited the loss of access to Eurodac. The Office for National Statistics has reported that long-term net migration to the United Kingdom nearly halved in 2025, falling to 171,000 from 331,000 a year earlier, a drop not seen since before the post-Brexit immigration system was introduced. Nigel Farage, leader of Reform UK, said the comments were a betrayal of Brexit. Burnham is due to meet senior European Union officials at a summit on 20 November.
Net migration in 2025:
171,000, down from 331,000
Summit date:
20 November
Why it matters for exams: The United Kingdom's statistics office, the houses of its Parliament and the referendum that led to departure from the European Union are all durable facts.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
ONS Office for National Statistics — The United Kingdom's official statistics agency.
Background
The Universal Postal Union (UPU) was established in 1874 and has its headquarters in the Swiss capital Berne.
The organisation describes itself as the second oldest international organization worldwide.
It has 192 member countries and is the primary forum for cooperation between postal sector players.
It sets the rules for international mail exchanges and makes recommendations on mail, parcel and financial services.
Any member country of the United Nations can become a member of the UPU; a country outside the United Nations needs the approval of at least two-thirds of UPU member countries.
The UPU consists of 4 bodies: the Congress, the Council of Administration, the Postal Operations Council and the International Bureau.
The Congress is the supreme authority of the UPU and meets every four years, while the Council of Administration ensures the continuity of the work between Congresses.
The Postal Operations Council consists of 48 member countries elected during Congress, and the International Bureau fulfils the secretariat function.
Established:
1874
Headquarters:
Berne, Switzerland
Member countries:
192
Bodies:
4
Postal Operations Council:
48 member countries
Congress meets:
Every four years
Why it matters for exams: The headquarters city, the member count and the four-body structure of the UPU are standard one-mark questions on the specialised agencies of the United Nations.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSC
In plain words
UPU Universal Postal Union — The international organisation that sets the rules for mail exchanged between countries.
POC Postal Operations Council — The technical and operational body of the UPU, elected by its Congress.
Background
The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) was established in 1994 to protect and restore land.
The UNCCD is the only legally binding framework set up to address desertification and the effects of drought.
There are 197 Parties to the Convention, including 196 country Parties and the European Union.
The Convention is based on the principles of participation, partnership and decentralization.
The UNCCD is also described as the sole legally binding international agreement linking environment and development to sustainable land management.
Its secretariat calls the Convention the driving force behind Sustainable Development Goal 15.
The Conference of the Parties adopted a Strategic Framework at its thirteenth session, covering the period from 2018 to 2030.
The institutions of the Convention include the Conference of the Parties, the Executive Secretary, the secretariat, the Global Mechanism and an evaluation office.
Established:
1994
Parties:
197
Country Parties:
196
Regional body that is a Party:
European Union
Linked goal:
Sustainable Development Goal 15
Why it matters for exams: Examiners pair the UNCCD with the biodiversity and climate conventions and ask which one covers land, how many Parties it has and which Sustainable Development Goal it is tied to.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification — The global treaty on land degradation, desertification and drought.
COP Conference of the Parties — The meeting of all Parties to a convention, which takes its decisions.
Background
The World Health Assembly is the decision-making body of the World Health Organization (WHO) and is attended by delegations from all WHO Member States.
Its main functions are to determine the policies of the Organization, appoint the Director-General, supervise financial policies, and review and approve the proposed programme budget.
The Executive Board is composed of 34 technically qualified members elected for three-year terms.
The annual Board meeting agrees the agenda for the World Health Assembly and the resolutions to be considered by it.
Its Constitution was adopted by the International Health Conference held in New York in 1946 and entered into force on 7 April 1948.
The Organization is headed by the Director-General, who is appointed by the Health Assembly on the nomination of the Executive Board, and who is WHO's chief technical and administrative officer overseeing the policy for the Organization's international health work.
WHO also has six Regional Committees, for Africa, the Americas, the Eastern Mediterranean, Europe, South-East Asia and the Western Pacific.
Decision-making body:
World Health Assembly
Executive Board members:
34
Board term:
Three-year terms
Constitution entered into force:
7 April 1948
Regional Committees:
6
Why it matters for exams: The split between the World Health Assembly and the Executive Board, the Board's size and term, and the date the WHO Constitution came into force are repeatedly asked.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSC
In plain words
WHA World Health Assembly — The yearly meeting of all WHO Member States, which sets the Organization's policies.
WHO World Health Organization — The United Nations agency for international public health, with its secretariat at Geneva.
Background
The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants was adopted by the Conference of Plenipotentiaries on 22 May 2001 in Stockholm, Sweden, and entered into force on 17 May 2004.
It is a global treaty to protect human health and the environment from chemicals that remain intact in the environment for long periods and accumulate in the fatty tissue of humans and wildlife.
The objective is set out in Article 1 of the Convention.
The negotiations began from an initial list of 12 POPs.
Parties must prohibit and/or eliminate the production and use, as well as the import and export, of the intentionally produced POPs listed in Annex A, where special rules apply to PCBs.
Parties must restrict the production and use, as well as the import and export, of the intentionally produced POPs listed in Annex B, for which acceptable purposes can be registered.
Annex C to the Convention covers releases from unintentionally produced POPs, under Article 5.
Article 8 sets the procedure for listing new POPs, and the POPs Review Committee examines listing proposals against the information requirements in Annexes D, E and F.
Adopted:
22 May 2001, Stockholm, Sweden
Entered into force:
17 May 2004
Initial list:
12 POPs
Annex for elimination:
Annex A
Annex for restriction:
Annex B
Annex for unintentional releases:
Annex C
Why it matters for exams: Which Annex eliminates, which restricts and which covers unintentional releases is the exact distinction examiners test on the Stockholm Convention.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
POPs Persistent Organic Pollutants — Chemicals that stay in the environment for long periods and build up in living tissue.
Conference of Plenipotentiaries Conference of Plenipotentiaries — A diplomatic conference where states with full powers adopt and open a treaty for signature.
Background
The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) comprises the World Meteorological Congress, the Executive Council, Regional Associations, two Technical Commissions and the Secretariat.
The World Meteorological Congress is WMO's highest decision-making body, and the Executive Council implements the decisions adopted by the Congress.
The six Regional Associations coordinate meteorological, hydrological and related activities within their respective Regions.
The Research Board, the Scientific Advisory Panel and additional bodies have been established by Congress.
The Officers of WMO are a President and three Vice-Presidents, who are also chair and vice-chairs of Congress and the Executive Council.
All Officers and members of the Executive Council act as representatives of the Organization and not of particular Members.
The Secretary-General directs the work of the Secretariat, headquartered in Geneva, and is the legal representative of the Organization.
The Officers and the Secretary-General together form the Bureau, an informal consultative mechanism whose primary, though not exclusive, focus is the preparation of sessions of the Executive Council and Congress.
Highest decision-making body:
World Meteorological Congress
Regional Associations:
6
Technical Commissions:
2
Secretariat:
Geneva
Vice-Presidents:
3
Why it matters for exams: With the WMO constantly in the news on El Nino and early warnings, the names of its Congress, Council and six Regional Associations are easy marks.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
WMO World Meteorological Organization — The United Nations body for weather, climate and water, with its Secretariat at Geneva.
Background
The Convention to assure the international unification and improvement of the metric system, commonly known as the Metre Convention, was signed on 20 May 1875 and amended in 1921.
It is an international treaty whose purpose was the creation of an international organization called the BIPM.
The treaty was signed in Paris by seventeen countries, and the day is now celebrated around the globe as World Metrology Day.
The bodies that the treaty established are the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM), the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) and the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM).
The BIPM is based at the Pavillon de Breteuil at Sèvres in France.
The treaty is one of the efforts made by countries in the second half of the nineteenth century to establish new forms of intergovernmental cooperation, alongside the International Telecommunications Union and the Universal Postal Union.
The 28th meeting of the CGPM was held from 13 to 15 October 2026 and adopted resolutions on universal adherence to the Metre Convention and on the future definition of the second.
Signed:
20 May 1875
Amended:
1921
Initial signatories:
17
BIPM headquarters:
Pavillon de Breteuil, Sèvres, France
Day marked:
World Metrology Day
Why it matters for exams: The three measurement bodies and their abbreviations, and the treaty behind World Metrology Day, come up in science and general awareness papers alike.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSC
In plain words
BIPM International Bureau of Weights and Measures — The intergovernmental laboratory created by the Metre Convention to keep measurements comparable worldwide.
CGPM General Conference on Weights and Measures — The conference of Member States that takes the big decisions on the system of units.
Background
Eurojust, the European Union Agency for Criminal Justice Cooperation, is a hub based in The Hague, the Netherlands, where national judicial authorities work closely together to fight serious organised cross-border crime.
Its role is to coordinate the work of national authorities, from the EU Member States as well as third States, in investigating and prosecuting transnational crime.
Each participating EU Member State seconds a National Member to Eurojust.
The National Members form the College of Eurojust, which is responsible for the operational work of the Agency.
The College is supported by the Eurojust Administration, which includes case analysts, legal advisors and data experts.
Eurojust has developed a network that grants prosecutors around the European Union access to more than 70 jurisdictions worldwide.
The Agency has signed cooperation agreements with a dozen non-EU states, several of which have seconded Liaison Prosecutors to Eurojust.
Its organisation also includes an Executive Board, a Presidency and an Administrative Director.
Headquarters:
The Hague, the Netherlands
Operational body:
The College of Eurojust
Jurisdictions reachable:
More than 70
Support body:
Eurojust Administration
Why it matters for exams: Eurojust is regularly confused with Europol and the European Public Prosecutor's Office, so its seat, its College and its exact mandate are tested.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Eurojust European Union Agency for Criminal Justice Cooperation — The European Union body that coordinates prosecutions across borders.
Background
The European Environment Agency (EEA) is an agency of the European Union and provides insights on the state of the environment in Europe.
Its knowledge network, Eionet, is its main partner and brings together 32 member countries and 8 cooperating countries.
The Agency collects and validates data from reliable sources to analyse trends and produce policy-relevant analyses on environment and climate topics.
Its core tasks are defined in its founding EU regulation and include supporting policy development and key global processes, offering analytical expertise, and providing and maintaining an efficient reporting infrastructure for national and international data flows.
Compliance and enforcement of EU legislation lie outside the work of the Agency and are the sole responsibility of the European Commission.
The Agency is governed by a Management Board and Bureau whose members are mandated to act in the public interest.
Scientific advice is provided by a Scientific Committee, while an Executive Director is responsible for day-to-day management and for operational and staffing matters.
The Agency's workplace is in Copenhagen and it has more than 295 employees.
Eionet member countries:
32
Eionet cooperating countries:
8
Governing bodies:
Management Board and Bureau
Scientific advice:
Scientific Committee
Workplace:
Copenhagen
Why it matters for exams: The EEA is the model answer for a data agency that does not enforce the law, and the size of its Eionet network is a clean factual question.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Eionet European Environment Information and Observation Network — The partner network of countries that feeds environmental data to the European Environment Agency.
Background
The East African Community (EAC) is a regional intergovernmental organisation of eight Partner States, with its headquarters in Arusha, Tanzania.
The Partner States are the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Federal Republic of Somalia, the Republic of Burundi, the Republic of Kenya, the Republic of Rwanda, the Republic of South Sudan, the Republic of Uganda and the United Republic of Tanzania.
The work of the EAC is guided by its Treaty, which was signed in 1999 and entered into force in 2000 following its ratification by the original three Partner States, Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania.
The Republic of Rwanda and the Republic of Burundi became full members in 2007, the Republic of South Sudan in 2016, the Democratic Republic of the Congo in 2022 and the Federal Republic of Somalia in 2024.
The EAC is home to an estimated 331.1 million citizens, of which over 30% is urban population.
It has a land area of 5.4 million square kilometres and a combined Gross Domestic Product of USD 356 billion.
Integration has moved through the East African Customs Union and the establishment of the East African Common Market, with an East African Monetary Union Protocol under implementation.
The Community is also working towards a Political Federation.
Partner States:
8
Headquarters:
Arusha, Tanzania
Treaty signed:
1999
Treaty entered into force:
2000
Population:
331.1 million
Land area:
5.4 million square kilometres
Combined GDP:
USD 356 billion
Why it matters for exams: African regional blocs are asked by headquarters city and membership, and the EAC's eight Partner States and Arusha seat are the standard pair.
Kerala PSCUPSCBank
In plain words
EAC East African Community — The regional bloc of eight states in eastern Africa, with its seat at Arusha.
Background
COMESA, the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa, was formed in December 1994 to replace the former Preferential Trade Area (PTA), which had existed from the earlier days of 1981.
Its Treaty defines COMESA as an organisation of free independent sovereign states which have agreed to co-operate in developing their natural and human resources for the good of all their people.
Its priorities include the promotion of peace and security in the region, but its main focus is the formation of a large economic and trading unit.
The current strategy of COMESA is summed up in the phrase economic prosperity through regional integration.
With a population of over 520 million and global trade in goods worth US$ 235 billion, COMESA forms a major market place for both internal and external trading.
Its Free Trade Area was achieved on 31st October, 2000, when member States eliminated tariffs on COMESA originating products under a tariff reduction schedule adopted earlier, and Burundi and Rwanda joined the Free Trade Area afterwards.
The Secretariat is the executive Organ of COMESA and ensures that the regulations and directives adopted by the Council of Ministers are properly implemented.
It is headed by a Secretary-General appointed by the COMESA Authority for a term of five years, eligible for reappointment for a further term of five years, who is the principal executive and accounting officer for COMESA as well as the Secretary of the Summit.
Formed:
December 1994
Replaced:
Preferential Trade Area (PTA), from the earlier days of 1981
Free Trade Area achieved:
31st October, 2000
Population:
Over 520 million
Executive Organ:
The Secretariat
Secretary-General term:
Five years, eligible for reappointment for a further term of five years
Why it matters for exams: COMESA is asked by its full expansion, the body it replaced and its Secretary-General's term, and it is a frequent distractor against the East African Community.
Kerala PSCUPSCBank
In plain words
COMESA Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa — An African trade bloc that grew out of an earlier preferential trade arrangement.
PTA Preferential Trade Area — The arrangement for eastern and southern Africa that COMESA replaced.