6 October 2026
The World Health Organization published a 33-page technical brief on 5 October 2026, edited with the United Nations Population Fund.
It covers girls aged 15-19 and uses the 2023 global, regional and national violence against women prevalence estimates.
More than one in five ever-married or partnered adolescent girls have experienced physical and/or sexual intimate partner violence.
An estimated 43 million girls aged 15-19 have experienced intimate partner violence, non-partner sexual violence, or both.
The brief names gender inequality and discriminatory social norms as drivers and notes substantial variation across regions and countries.
It recommends multisectoral prevention and response, survivor-centred services, sustained financing and stronger data, research and monitoring.
Girls aged 15-19 affected:
43 million
Partnered girls with partner violence:
More than one in five
Length:
33 pages
Why it matters for exams: Global health and gender reports from WHO and UNFPA are frequent sources of questions on UN agencies and social indicators.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
UNFPA United Nations Population Fund — The UN agency for sexual and reproductive health.
Intimate partner violence Violence by a current or former partner — It includes physical and sexual violence.
6 October 2026
The World Health Organization published target product profiles (TPPs) for Taenia solium diagnostics on 6 October 2026.
They cover diagnostic tests for taeniasis in humans and for cysticercosis in humans and pigs.
The profiles aim to stimulate investment and innovation in diagnostics that support neurocysticercosis (NCC) case management and strengthen T. solium control programmes.
They set out tests that detect T. solium-specific markers to identify areas with at least 0.5% taeniasis prevalence or 2% porcine cysticercosis prevalence.
They also describe point-of-care detection of viable cysts in the central nervous system and tests to identify symptomatic people needing referral where imaging is not available.
Taeniasis prevalence threshold:
0.5%
Porcine cysticercosis threshold:
2%
Why it matters for exams: Zoonotic and neglected tropical diseases and WHO's normative role are recurring exam topics.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
TPP Target product profile — A document listing the features a new test or product should have.
Neurocysticercosis NCC — Infection of the central nervous system by T. solium cysts.
6 October 2026
The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences announced on 6 October 2026 that the Nobel Prize in Physics 2026 goes to Francis Halzen of the University of Wisconsin–Madison, USA.
The citation reads: for decisive contributions to the IceCube Neutrino Observatory and the discovery of high-energy neutrinos of astrophysical origin.
Halzen first presented his vision for capturing neutrinos at the South Pole in 1988.
IceCube covers a cubic kilometre of South Pole ice equipped with light sensors and was finished in 2011.
The prize amount is 12 million Swedish kronor.
Laureate:
Francis Halzen
Institution:
University of Wisconsin–Madison, USA
Observatory:
IceCube Neutrino Observatory
Prize amount:
12 million Swedish kronor
Why it matters for exams: Nobel laureates, citations and the science behind them are staple questions in science and current-affairs papers.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Neutrino Neutrino — A particle that passes through matter almost without interacting and keeps its direction from its source.
IceCube IceCube Neutrino Observatory — A detector made of a cubic kilometre of South Pole ice fitted with light sensors.
5 October 2026
The European Space Agency (ESA) signed a Memorandum of Understanding with Vast, per ESA press release N° 61–2026 of 5 October 2026.
It was signed during the 77th International Astronautical Congress and is part of ESA's preparations for the end of service and de-orbitation of the International Space Station.
The MoU provides a framework for possible astronaut missions to Vast's station Haven, possible ESA hardware or infrastructure contributions, and ESA utilisation of Haven stations.
It replaces the MoU signed at ILA Berlin in June 2024 and runs for an initial three years, starting with a joint feasibility study meant to produce a roadmap and an indicative schedule for any binding agreements.
ESA press release:
N° 61–2026
Partner:
Vast
Vast station:
Haven
Initial term:
Three years
Replaces MoU of:
June 2024 (ILA Berlin)
Why it matters for exams: Post-ISS planning and commercial space stations are recurring themes in space and international-organisation questions.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
MoU Memorandum of Understanding — A framework document recording intended cooperation, short of a binding agreement.
LEO Low Earth Orbit — The orbital region close to Earth where the ISS operates.
Background
Chapter XIV of the UN Charter makes the International Court of Justice the principal judicial organ of the United Nations. All Members are ipso facto parties to the Court's Statute. Article 94 says each Member undertakes to comply with the Court's decision in any case to which it is a party. If a party fails to perform its obligations under a judgment, the other party may have recourse to the Security Council, which may make recommendations or decide on measures to give effect to the judgment. Under Article 96, the General Assembly or the Security Council may request an advisory opinion on any legal question.
Chapter:
XIV (Articles 92-96) / XIV (വകുപ്പുകൾ 92-96)
Compliance with decisions:
Article 94 / വകുപ്പ് 94
Advisory opinions:
Article 96 / വകുപ്പ് 96
Why it matters for exams: Article 94 and how ICJ judgments are enforced is a classic question on the UN system.
Kerala PSCUPSCSSC
In plain words
Advisory opinion Advisory opinion — The Court's legal opinion on a question put to it by an authorised UN body, not a judgment in a dispute.
Background
United Nations Peacekeeping states that three basic principles continue to set its operations apart as a tool for maintaining international peace and security. They are consent of the parties, impartiality, and non-use of force except in self-defence and defence of the mandate. Operations are deployed with the consent of the main parties to the conflict; in the absence of such consent an operation risks becoming a party to the conflict. Impartiality should not be confused with neutrality or inactivity: peacekeepers are to be impartial in their dealings with the parties but not neutral in executing their mandate. A peacekeeping operation is not an enforcement tool, but it may use force at the tactical level, with the authorization of the Security Council, in self-defence and defence of the mandate. Robust peacekeeping is not the same as peace enforcement, which is envisaged under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter.
First principle:
Consent of the parties
Second principle:
Impartiality
Third principle:
Non-use of force except in self-defence and defence of the mandate
Force at the tactical level needs:
the authorization of the Security Council
Why it matters for exams: The three principles are the standard frame for any question on how a peacekeeping operation differs from enforcement action under Chapter VII.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Mandate — The set of tasks a peacekeeping operation is authorised to carry out.
Peace enforcement — Coercive action, including military force, that does not depend on the consent of the main parties.
Chapter VII — The part of the UN Charter dealing with action in respect of threats to the peace and acts of aggression.
Background
United Nations Peacekeeping describes peacekeeping as one among a range of activities the Organization undertakes to maintain international peace and security. The other activities are conflict prevention and mediation, peacemaking, peace enforcement and peacebuilding. Conflict prevention involves diplomatic measures to keep intra-state or inter-state tensions and disputes from escalating into violent conflict, and includes early warning and analysis of the factors driving the conflict. Peacemaking generally means diplomatic action to bring hostile parties to a negotiated agreement, and may draw on the Secretary-General's good offices. Peace enforcement involves a range of coercive measures, including the use of military force, and requires the explicit authorization of the Security Council where it has decided to act in the face of a threat to the peace, breach of the peace or act of aggression. Peacebuilding aims to reduce the risk of lapsing or relapsing into conflict by strengthening national capacities for conflict management. The United Nations notes that these activities rarely occur in a linear or sequential way and should be seen as mutually reinforcing.
Diplomatic measures before violence begins:
conflict prevention and mediation
Bringing hostile parties to a negotiated agreement:
peacemaking
Coercive measures including military force:
peace enforcement
Strengthening national capacities after conflict:
peacebuilding
Peace enforcement requires:
explicit authorization of the Security Council
Why it matters for exams: Examiners regularly ask candidates to match peacemaking, peacekeeping, peace enforcement and peacebuilding to their definitions.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Good offices — The use of a third party's standing, often the Secretary-General's, to help disputing sides talk.
Peacebuilding — Long-term work to build the national capacities that keep a country from sliding back into conflict.
Background
The Convention relating to the Status of Refugees was adopted at Geneva, 28 July 1951, and the United Nations records that it entered into force in 1954. It has one amending and updating instrument, the Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees, adopted at New York, 31 January 1967. The Convention is by far the most widely ratified refugee treaty and remains central to the protection work of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. That Office was set up by General Assembly resolution 428 (V) of 14 December 1950 with effect from 1 January 1951. Initially set up for three years, its mandate was renewed repeatedly until the Assembly decided to continue the Office until the refugee problem is solved. The regime is reactive: it is triggered by a cross-border movement, so neither prevention nor the protection of internally displaced persons falls within its range. Earlier, article 14, paragraph 1, of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights had recognised the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution.
Convention adopted at:
Geneva, 28 July 1951
Convention entered into force:
entered into force in 1954
Protocol adopted at:
New York, 31 January 1967
UNHCR created by:
428 (V)
Office took effect from:
1 January 1951
Why it matters for exams: The pairing of the Geneva Convention with its New York Protocol, and the fact that internally displaced persons fall outside it, are the two points examiners test.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Protocol — A separate instrument that adds to or updates an existing treaty.
Internally displaced persons — People forced from their homes who have not crossed an international border.
Background
There are three Protocols Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, two of which were adopted in 1977 and the third in 2005. Protocol I and Protocol II were adopted by States on 8 June 1977 at Geneva and entered into force on 7 December 1978. Protocol I regulates conflicts of an international nature, while Protocol II applies to non-international armed conflicts. The third instrument, adopted at Geneva, 8 December 2005, relates to the Adoption of an Additional Distinctive Emblem. The Protocols develop and supplement the four 1949 Geneva Conventions and are only open to those States that are also party to these Conventions. Together these instruments are the best known of the treaty documents of international humanitarian law.
Number of Additional Protocols:
three
Protocols I and II adopted:
Geneva, 8 June 1977
Protocols I and II entered into force:
7 December 1978
Third Protocol adopted:
Geneva, 8 December 2005
Subject of the third Protocol:
Additional Distinctive Emblem
Why it matters for exams: Candidates are regularly asked which Protocol covers international and which covers non-international armed conflict.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
International humanitarian law — The body of law limiting how wars may be fought and protecting those who are not fighting.
Distinctive emblem — A protective sign that marks medical and relief personnel and objects in armed conflict.
Background
The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties was concluded at Vienna, 23 May 1969, and the United Nations records that it is in force since 27 January 1980. The International Law Commission had placed the customary law of treaties among the topics suitable for codification at its first session, in 1949. By resolution 2166 (XXI) of 5 December 1966 the General Assembly endorsed the Commission's recommendation to convene an international conference, which met in two sessions at Vienna. Article 1 restricts the application of the Convention to written treaties between States, excluding treaties concluded by international organizations. Following an Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice, the Convention prohibits reservations which are incompatible with the object and purpose of the treaty to which they relate, under article 19 (c). The rule of interpretation in article 31 makes the object and purpose of a treaty, and its context, guidelines of interpretation. The Convention also addresses treaties that conflict with a peremptory norm of international law, known as jus cogens.
Concluded at:
Vienna, 23 May 1969
In force since:
27 January 1980
Conference endorsed by:
resolution 2166 (XXI)
Reservations provision:
article 19 (c)
Rule of interpretation:
article 31
Why it matters for exams: Every question on reservations, interpretation or invalidity of treaties runs through this Convention, and its exclusion of treaties made by international organizations is a favourite trap.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Reservation — A statement by which a State excludes or modifies the effect of certain provisions of a treaty for itself.
Jus cogens — A peremptory norm of general international law from which no treaty may depart.
Codification — Writing existing customary rules down in a treaty text.
Background
The International Law Commission is a subsidiary organ of the United Nations General Assembly, whose object is the promotion of the progressive development of international law and its codification. The Commission is governed by a Statute concluded at New York, 21 November 1947, and annexed to General Assembly resolution 174 (II) of that date. The Commission began with fifteen members; the number rose to twenty-one in 1956, twenty-five in 1961 and thirty-four in 1981. The term of office of members, initially envisaged as three, was extended to five years as early as 1950. The Statute originally provided that the Commission should sit in New York, but this was changed to Geneva in 1955, and after its first session the Commission has almost always met there. Members are to be persons of recognized competence in international law, and while the Statute leaves the point implicit, it is clear from the negotiating history and from subsequent practice that they serve in their individual capacity, not as representatives of States.
Statute concluded at:
New York, 21 November 1947
Statute annexed to resolution:
174 (II)
Members at the start:
fifteen members
Members since 1981:
thirty-four
Term of office:
five years
Why it matters for exams: The Commission is the body behind most codification treaties, and the distinction between its members and State representatives is a standard question.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Subsidiary organ — A body created by a principal organ of the United Nations to carry out part of its work.
Progressive development — Drafting new rules on subjects international law has not yet settled.
Background
The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons was commended by the General Assembly in resolution 2373 (XXII), adopted at New York, 12 June 1968. The United Nations records that the Treaty was opened for signature on 1 July 1968 and entered into force on 5 March 1970. It aims to avert the danger of nuclear war through the prevention of the wider dissemination of nuclear weapons and other measures. The Treaty contains 11 articles that apply to both nuclear-weapon States parties and non-nuclear weapon States parties. Its obligations cover preventing the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology, cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, and the pursuit of nuclear disarmament and of general and complete disarmament. Twenty-five years after its entry into force, at the 1995 Review and Extension Conference, the States parties unanimously agreed that the Treaty should continue in force indefinitely.
Commended by resolution:
resolution 2373 (XXII)
Adopted at:
New York, 12 June 1968
Opened for signature:
1 July 1968
Entered into force:
5 March 1970
Number of articles:
11 articles
Why it matters for exams: The indefinite extension and the split between nuclear-weapon and non-nuclear-weapon States parties are the points most often tested on this treaty.
Kerala PSCUPSC
In plain words
Non-proliferation — Stopping nuclear weapons and the technology to build them from spreading to more States.
Review conference — A periodic meeting of the parties to examine how a treaty is working.